@article {396,
	title = {Comparison of particle size measurements with laser-induced incandescence, mass spectroscopy and scanning mobility particle sizing in a laminar premixed ethylene/air flame},
	journal = {Combustion Science and Technology},
	volume = {181},
	year = {2009},
	chapter = {329},
	abstract = {<p align="left">
	<font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">Particle size distribution functions (PSDF) and mean particle sizes have been determined </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">in a laminar premixed ethylene/air flame with three different experimental approaches: </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">photo-ionization mass spectrometry (PIMS), scanning mobility particle sizing (SMPS), </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">and laser-induced incandescence (LII). The main goal of this investigation was the crossvalidation </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">of these three methods used at our institute for the determination of particle sizes </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">in a great variety of flames or exhaust gases. We found good agreement between the three </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">methods in the ranges where they are comparable as well as a complementary behavior for </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">the different size ranges. PIMS and SMPS are able to measure the particle size distribution </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">functions with good resolution. PIMS is favorable in detecting the smallest particles </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">(</font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimB" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimB" size="2">\&lt;</font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">6 nm) and thereby able to detect even bimodal distributions of the soot precursor </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">particles. SMPS and LII are suitable in the mid- and upper range of the particle sizes </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">(</font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimB" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimB" size="2">\&gt;</font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">2 nm and </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimB" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimB" size="2">\&gt;</font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">3 nm, respectively). LII offers the particular advantage of being a non-intrusive </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">method. This makes it applicable in extreme environments, such as high pressure flames, </font></font><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2"><font face="AdvSTP_PSTimBI" size="2">as well as in very sensitive flames because no probe is needed. </font></font></p>
},
	doi = {10.1080/00102200802483498},
	author = {Stirn, Ronnie and Gonzalez Baquet, Tania and Kanjarkar, Santosh and Meier, Wolfgang and Geigle, Klaus Peter and Grotheer, Horst-Henning and Wahl, Claus and Aigner, Manfred}
}
@article {,
	title = {Derivation of a temperature-dependent accommodation coefficient for use in modeling laser-induced incandescence of soot},
	journal = {Applied Physics B},
	volume = {94},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {103-117},
	chapter = {103},
	abstract = {<p>\&nbsp;</p> <p><!--StartFragment--></p> <p>This paper presents a derivation of an expression to estimate the accommodation coefficient for gas collisions with a graphite surface, which is meant for use in models of laser-induced incandescence (LII) of soot.\&nbsp; Energy transfer between gas molecules and solid surfaces has been studied extensively, and a considerable amount is known about the physical mechanisms important in thermal accommodation.\&nbsp; Values of accommodation coefficients currently used in LII models are temperature independent and are based on a small subset of information available in the literature.\&nbsp; The expression derived in this study is based on published data from state-to-state gas-surface scattering experiments.\&nbsp; The present study compiles data on the temperature dependence of translational, rotational, and vibrational energy transfer for diatomic molecules (predominantly NO) colliding with graphite surfaces.\&nbsp; The data were used to infer partial accommodation coefficients for translational, rotational, and vibrational degrees of freedom, which were consolidated to derive an overall accommodation coefficient that accounts for accommodation of all degrees of freedom of the scattered gas distributions.\&nbsp; This accommodation coefficient can be used to calculate conductive cooling rates following laser heating of soot particles.</p> <p><!--EndFragment--></p>},
	doi = {10.1007/s00340-008-3278-x},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-008-3278-x},
	author = {Michelsen, H. A.}
}
@article {397,
	title = {The influence of wavelength in extinction measurements and beam steering in laser-induced incandescence measurements in sooting flames},
	journal = {Applied Physics B},
	volume = {96},
	year = {2009},
	chapter = {683},
	abstract = {<p align="left">
	<font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">The accuracy of laser-induced incandescence </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">(LII) measurements is significantly influenced by the calibration </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">process and the laser profile degradation due to </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">beam steering. Additionally, the wavelength used for extinction </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">measurements, needed for LII calibration, is critical </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">and should be kept as high as possible in order to avoid light </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">absorption by molecular species in the flame. The influence </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">of beam steering on the LII measurement was studied in turbulent </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">sooting C</font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="1"><font face="Times-Roman" size="1">2</font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">H</font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="1"><font face="Times-Roman" size="1">4</font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">/air flames at different pressures. While </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">inhomogeneities in the laser profile become smoothed out </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">in time-averaged measurements, especially at higher pressure, </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">the corresponding single-shot beam profiles reveal an </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">increasing effect of beam steering. In the current configuration </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">it was observed that the resulting local laser fluence </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">remains within certain limits (30\% to 200\%) of the original </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">value. A sufficiently high incident laser fluence can thus prevent\&nbsp; t</font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">he local fluence from dropping below the LII threshold </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">value of approximately 0.3 J</font></font><i><font face="MTMI" size="2"><font face="MTMI" size="2">/</font></font></i><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">cm</font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="1"><font face="Times-Roman" size="1">2 </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">at the cost of increased </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">soot surface vaporization. A spatial resolution in the dimension </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">of the sheet thickness of below 1 mm cannot be guaranteed </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">at increased pressure of 9 bars due to beam steering.</font></font></p>
<p align="left">
	<font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">A feasibility study in a combustor at technical conditions </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">demonstrates the influence of both effects beam steering and </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">choice of calibration wavelength and led to the conclusion </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">that, however, a shot-to-shot calibration of LII with simultaneously </font></font><font face="Times-Roman" size="2"><font face="Times-Roman" size="2">measured extinction can be realized. </font></font></p>
},
	doi = {10.1007/s00340-009-3550-8},
	author = {Zerbs, Jochen and Geigle, Klaus Peter and Lammel, Oliver and Hader, Joachim and Stirn, Ronnie and Hadef, Redjem and Meier, Wolfgang}
}
@article {,
	title = {Photochemical interferences for laser-induced incandescence of flame-generated soot},
	journal = {Proceeding of the Combustion Institute},
	volume = {32},
	year = {2009},
	pages = {963-970},
	chapter = {963},
	abstract = {<p>This paper presents measurements of spectrally and temporally resolved laser-induced incandescence (LII) from soot. The second harmonic (532 nm) from a nanosecond Nd:YAG laser was used to heat the soot over a wide range of fluences. The emission was spectrally resolved using a spectrograph attached to an intensified CCD camera with a gate width of ~1.5 ns. At fluences below 0.2 J/cm2, corresponding to the sublimation threshold, spectra demonstrate broadband featureless emission characteristic of laser-induced incandescence, whereas at higher fluences spectra show sharp features attributable to C2 Swan band emission, C3 Swings band emission, and other species. These features perturb the LII signal at wavelengths between 380 and 680 nm, suggesting that this detection region should be avoided for LII measurements made using a 532-nm laser beam at fluences of 0.2 J/cm2 and above. The detection wavelength regions to be avoided are much more extensive than previously believed.</p><!--StartFragment--><!--EndFragment-->},
	doi = {10.1016/j.proci.2008.05.030},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2008.05.030},
	author = {F. Goulay and P. E. Schrader and L. Nemes and M. A. Dansson and Michelsen, H. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Modeling laser-induced incandescence of soot: Enthalpy changes during sublimation, conduction, and oxidation},
	journal = {Applied Physics B},
	volume = {93},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {645-656},
	chapter = {645},
	abstract = {<p>This paper presents an analysis of several equations used to model laser-induced incandescence (LII) of soot.\&nbsp; The analysis focuses on sub-models of the change in particle enthalpy during sublimation, conduction, and oxidation.\&nbsp; Assuming that pressure is constant, expressing the conductive cooling rate in terms of enthalpy instead of energy, thereby accounting for expansion work, increases the signal decay rate and has an effect comparable to increasing the thermal accommodation coefficient from 0.30 to 0.38.\&nbsp; Accounting for oxidative heating decreases the signal decay rate and has an effect comparable to decreasing the accommodation coefficient from 0.30 to 0.25.\&nbsp; As an estimate of magnitude of these effects, primary particle sizes inferred from signal decay rates measured at low fluences may be over-predicted by as much as 17\% if oxidation is neglected in the model at O2 partial pressures of ~0.2 bar, under-predicted by 24\% if expansion work is neglected, and under-predicted by only 9\% if both are neglected.\&nbsp; This paper also provides updated parameterizations for average enthalpies of formation, molecular weights, and total pressures of sublimed carbon clusters for use in LII models.</p><!--StartFragment--><!--EndFragment-->},
	keywords = {conduction, enthalpy, LII, modeling, oxidation, soot, sublimation},
	doi = {10.1007/s00340-008-3181-5},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-008-3181-5},
	author = {Michelsen, H. A. and M. A. Linne and Kock, Boris F. and Hofmann, Max and B. Tribalet and C. Schulz}
}
@article {,
	title = {On the dependence of the laser-induced incandescence (LII) signal on soot volume fraction for variations in particle size},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {90},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {109-125},
	abstract = {<p>\&quot;The laser-induced incandescence (LII) signal is proportional to soot volume fraction\&quot; is an often used statement in scientific papers, and it has \&ndash; within experimental uncertainties \&ndash; been validated in comparisons with other diagnostic techniques in several investigations. In 1984 it was shown theoretically in a paper by Melton that there is a deviation from this statement in that the presence of larger particles leads to some overestimation of soot volume fractions. In the present paper we present a detailed theoretical investigation of how the soot particle size influences the relationship between LII signal and soot volume fraction for different experimental conditions. Several parameters have been varied; detection wavelength, time and delay of detection gate, ambient gas temperature and pressure, laser fluence, level of aggregation and spatial profile. Based on these results we are able, firstly, to understand how experimental conditions should be chosen in order to minimize the errors introduced when assuming a linear dependence between the signal and volume fraction and secondly, to obtain knowledge on how to use this information to obtain more accurate soot volume fraction data if the particle size is known.</p>},
	doi = {10.1007/s00340-007-2826-0},
	url = {http://www.springerlink.com/content/945q86u175j15832/?p=a8d3408fa15848f5bc8240c426ed0ca4\&pi=4},
	author = {Bladh, H. and Johnsson, J. and Per-Erik Bengtsson}
}
@article {,
	title = {Spectral effects in laser induced incandescence application to flame-made titania nanoparticles},
	journal = {Spectrochimica Acta Part B},
	volume = {63},
	year = {2008},
	pages = {202-209},
	publisher = {Elsevier},
	doi = {10.1016/j.sab.2007.11.022},
	author = {Maffi, S. and F. Cignoli and Bellomunno, C. and De Iuliis, S. and G. Zizak}
}
@article {,
	title = {2D soot volume fraction imaging in an ethylene diffusion flame by two-color laser-induced incandescence (2C-LII) technique and comparison with results from other optical diagnostics},
	journal = {Proceedings of The Combustion Institute},
	volume = {31},
	year = {2007},
	pages = {869-976},
	doi = {10.1016/j.proci.2006.07.149},
	author = {De Iuliis, S. and Migliorini, F. and F. Cignoli and G. Zizak}
}
@article {,
	title = {Complications to optical measurements using a laser with an unstable resonator: A case study on laser-induced incandescence of soot},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {46},
	number = {33},
	year = {2007},
	pages = {8095-8103},
	chapter = {8095},
	abstract = {<p>Temporal behavior of pulses from a Q-switched Nd:YAG laser with an unstable resonator can vary significantly with radial position in the beam.\&nbsp; Our laser provides pulses with position-dependent durations spanning 8-11.5 ns at 1064 nm and 7-10 ns at 532 nm.\&nbsp; Pulses emerge first and have the longest duration at the center of the beam; they are shorter (by up to 4 ns) and increasingly delayed (by up to 10 ns) with increasing radial distance from the center.\&nbsp; This behavior can have a dramatic effect on time-sensitive experiments, such as laser-induced incandescence of soot, if not taken into account.\&nbsp;</p><!--StartFragment--><!--EndFragment-->},
	keywords = {laser resonator, LII, soot, unstable resonator},
	author = {M. A. Dansson and M. Boisselle and M. A. Linne and Michelsen, H. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Modeling laser-induced incandescence of soot: A summary and comparison of LII models},
	journal = {Applied Physics B},
	volume = {87},
	year = {2007},
	pages = {503-521},
	chapter = {503},
	abstract = {<p>\&nbsp;</p><!--StartFragment--><p><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Times;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">We have performed a comparison of ten models that predict the temporal behavior of laser-induced incandescence (LII) of soot.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">\&nbsp; </span>In this paper we present a summary of the models and comparisons of calculated temperatures, diameters, signals, and energy-balance terms.<span style="mso-spacerun:
yes">\&nbsp; </span>The models were run assuming laser heating at 532 nm at fluences of 0.05 and 0.70 J/cm<sup>2</sup> with a laser temporal profile provided.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">\&nbsp; </span>Calculations were performed for a single primary particle with a diameter of 30 nm at an ambient temperature of 1800 K and pressure of 1 bar.<span style="mso-spacerun:
yes">\&nbsp; </span>Preliminary calculations were performed with a fully constrained model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">\&nbsp; </span>The comparison of unconstrained models demonstrates a wide spread in calculated LII signals.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">\&nbsp; </span>Many of the differences can be attributed to the values of a few important parameters, such as the refractive index function <i>E</i></span><span style="font-size:12.0pt;
font-family:Times;mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">(<i>m</i></span><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Times;mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:
EN-US">) and thermal and mass accommodation coefficients.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">\&nbsp; </span>Constraining these parameters brings most of the models into much better agreement with each other, particularly for the low-fluence case.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">\&nbsp; </span>Agreement among models is not as good for the high-fluence case, even when selected parameters are constrained.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">\&nbsp; </span>The reason for greater variability in model results at high fluence appears to be related to solution approaches to mass and heat loss by sublimation.</span></p><!--EndFragment-->},
	doi = {10.1007/s00340-007-2619-5},
	author = {Michelsen, H. A. and Liu, Fengshan and Kock, Boris F. and Bladh, H. and A. Boiarciuc and Charwath, M. and Dreier, T. and Hadef, R. and Hofmann, Max and J. Reimann and Will, S. and Per-Erik Bengtsson and Henning Bockhorn and F. Foucher and Geigle, Klaus Peter and C. Mouna{\"\i}m-Rousselle and C. Schulz and R. Stirn and B. Tribalet and Rainer Suntz}
}
@article {,
	title = {Particle formation from pulsed laser irradiation of soot aggregates studied with a scanning mobility particle sizer, a transmission electron microscope, and a scanning transmission x-ray microscope},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {46},
	number = {6},
	year = {2007},
	pages = {959-977},
	chapter = {959},
	abstract = {<p>\&nbsp;</p><!--StartFragment--><p><span style="font-size:12.0pt;font-family:\&quot;Times New Roman\&quot;;
mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:EN-US">We investigated the physical and chemical changes induced in soot aggregates exposed to laser radiation using a scanning mobility particle sizer, a transmission electron microscope, and a scanning transmission x-ray microscope to perform near edge x-ray absorption fine structure spectroscopy. <span style="mso-spacerun:
yes">\&nbsp;</span>Laser-induced nanoparticle production was observed at fluences above 0.12 J/cm<sup>2</sup> at 532 nm and 0.22 J/cm<sup>2</sup> at 1064 nm.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes">\&nbsp; </span>Our results indicate that new particle formation proceeds via (1) vaporization of small carbon clusters by thermal or photolytic mechanisms, followed by homogeneous nucleation, (2) heterogeneous nucleation of vaporized carbon clusters onto material ablated from primary particles, or (3) both processes.\&nbsp;</span></p><!--EndFragment-->},
	author = {Michelsen, H. A. and A. V. Tivanski and M. K. Gilles and L. H. van Poppel and M. A. Dansson and P. R. Buseck}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Soot particulate size characterisation in a heavy-duty Diesel engine for different engine loads by laser-induced incandescence},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the Combustion Institute},
	volume = {31},
	year = {2007},
	pages = {685-691},
	address = {Heidelberg},
	doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2006.08.040},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2006.08.040},
	author = {Bougie, B. and Ganippa, L. C. and Van Vliet, A. P. and Meerts, W. L. and Dam, N. J. and ter Meulen, J. J.}
}
@article {389,
	title = {Heat conduction from a spherical nano-particle: status of modeling heat conduction in laser-induced incandescence},
	journal = {Applied Physics B},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {6/2006},
	pages = {355 - 382},
	issn = {0946-2171},
	doi = {10.1007/s00340-006-2194-1},
	author = {Liu, Fengshan and K. J. Daun and Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Experimental and theoretical comparison of spatially resolved laser-induced incandescence (LII) signals of soot in backward and right-angle configuration},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {423 - 433},
	abstract = {In-situ measurements of soot volume fraction in the exhausts of jet engines can be carried out using the laser-induced incandescence (LII) technique in backward configuration, in which the signal is detected in the opposite direction of the laser beam propagation. In order to improve backward LII for quantitative measurements, we have in this work made a detailed experimental and theoretical investigation in which backward LII has been compared with the more commonly used right-angle LII technique. Both configurations were used in simultaneous visualization experiments at various pulse energies and gate timings in a stabilized methane diffusion flame. The spatial near-Gaussian laser energy distribution was monitored on-line as well as the time-resolved LII signal. A heat and mass transfer model for soot particles exposed to laser radiation was used to theoretically predict both the temporal and spatial LII signals. Comparison between experimental and theoretical LII signals indicates similar general behaviour, for example the broadening of the spatial LII distribution and the hole-burning effect at centre of the beam due to sublimation for increasing laser pulse energies. However, our comparison also indicates that the current heat and mass transfer model overpredicts signal intensities at higher fluence, and possible reasons for this behaviour are discussed.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2197-y},
	author = {Bladh, H. and Per-Erik Bengtsson and Delhay, J. and Bouvier, Y. and Therssen, E. and Desgroux, P.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Heat conduction from a spherical nano-particle: status of modeling heat conduction in laser-induced incandescence},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {355 - 382},
	abstract = {Laser-induced incandescence (LII) of nano-second pulsed laser heated nano-particles has been developed into a popular technique for characterizing concentration and size of particles suspended in a gas and continues to draw increased research attention. Heat conduction is in general the dominant particle cooling mechanism after the laser pulse. Accurate calculation of the particle cooling rate is essential for accurate analysis of LII experimental data. Modelling of particle conduction heat loss has often been flawed. This paper attempts to provide a comprehensive review of the heat conduction modelling practice in the LII literature and an overview of the physics of heat conduction loss from a single spherical particle in the entire range of Knudsen number with emphasis on the transition regime. Various transition regime models developed in the literature are discussed with their accuracy evaluated against direct simulation Monte Carlo results under different particle-to-gas temperature ratios. The importance of accounting for the variation of the thermal properties of the surrounding gas between the gas temperature and the particle temperature is demonstrated. Effects of using these heat conduction models on the inferred particle diameter or the thermal accommodation coefficient are also evaluated. The popular McCoy and Cha model is extensively discussed and evaluated. Based on its superior accuracy in the entire transition regime and even under large particle-to-gas temperature ratios, the Fuchs boundary-sphere model is recommended for modeling particle heat conduction cooling in LII applications.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2194-1},
	author = {Liu, Fengshan and K. J. Daun and Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Influence of polydisperse distributions of both primary particle and aggregate size on soot temperature in low-fluence LII},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {383 - 395},
	abstract = {An improved aggregate-based low-fluence laser-induced incandescence (LII) model has been developed. The shielding effect in heat conduction between aggregated soot particles and the surrounding gas was modeled using the concept of the equivalent heat transfer sphere. The diameter of such an equivalent sphere was determined from direct simulation Monte Carlo calculations in the free molecular regime as functions of the aggregate size and the thermal accommodation coefficient of soot. Both the primary soot particle diameter and the aggregate size distributions are assumed to be lognormal. The effective temperature of a soot particle ensemble containing different primary particle diameters and aggregate sizes in the laser probe volume was calculated based on the ratio of the total thermal radiation intensities of soot particles at 400 and 780 nm to simulate the experimentally measured soot particle temperature using two-color optical pyrometry. The effect of primary particle diameter polydispersity is in general important and should be considered. The effect of aggregate size polydispersity is relatively unimportant when the heat conduction between the primary particles and the surrounding gas takes place in the free-molecular regime; however, it starts to become important when the heat conduction process occurs in the near transition regime. The model developed in this study was also applied to the re-determination of the thermal accommodation coefficient of soot in an atmospheric pressure laminar ethylene diffusion flame.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2196-z},
	author = {Liu, Fengshan and Yang, Min and Hill, Frances A. and Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Influence of Temporal Resolution on Time-Resolved Laser-Induced Incandescence Signal Evolutions},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {435 - 442},
	abstract = {Time-resolved LII (TIRE-LII) measurements are performed simultaneously at two different wavelengths in a sooting, premixed, flat acetylene flame under atmospheric pressure conditions. The influence of temporal response of the detection system on the measured evolution of the LII signal is discussed. The effect of the temporal response on the determination of particle size distributions is quantified for data evaluation starting some nanoseconds after the maximum particle ensemble temperature. Furthermore, it is investigated how the temporal response of a slow detection system affects the determination of accommodation parameters, e.g. thermal accommodation coefficients, and evaporation coefficients, if TIRE-LII signals are modelled including particle heating as well as particle cooling, and if deconvolution techniques are not applied to the measured LII signal.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2265-3},
	author = {Charwath, M. and Rainer Suntz and Henning Bockhorn}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser induced incandescence measurements of soot volume fraction and effective particle size in a laminar co-annular non-premixed methane/air flame at pressures between 0.5{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}4.0 MPa},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {469 - 475},
	abstract = {An auto-compensating laser-induced incandescence (AC-LII) technique was applied for the first time to measure soot volume fraction (SVF) and effective primary particle diameter (dpeff) in a high pressure methane/air non-premixed flame. The measured dpeff profiles had annular structures and radial symmetry, and the particle size increased with increasing pressure. LII-determined SVFs were lower than those measured by a line of sight attenuation (LOSA) technique. The LOSA measured soot volume fractions were corrected for light scattering using the Rayleigh{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}Debye{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}Gans polydisperse fractal aggregate (RDG-PFA) theory, the dpeff data, and assumptions regarding the soot aggregate size distribution. The correction dramatically improved agreement between data obtained using these two measurement techniques. Qualitatively, soot volume distributions obtained using LII had more annular shapes than those obtained using LOSA. Nonetheless, it has been demonstrated that the AC-LII technique is very well suited for application in media where attenuation of the excitation laser pulse energy can exceed 45\%. This paper also underlines the importance of correcting LOSA SVF measurements for light scattering in high pressure flames.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2198-x},
	author = {Kevin A. Thomson and Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Liu, Fengshan}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser Induced Incandescence under High Vacuum Conditions},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {455 - 467},
	abstract = {This paper reports on a study of laser-induced incandescence of carbon particles in free space within a high vacuum (<10-3 mbar) excited by an Nd:YAG laser pulse. We have conducted an experimental study using samples of carbon black placed within an evacuated, sealed glass vessel which is slowly tumbled to cause a cascade of carbon black particles in free space. Our experiments show that under a high vacuum two important phenomena are observed. Due to the absence of gaseous conduction, in comparison to particles in ambient air, incandescence lifetime in a vacuum is dramatically extended to more than 50 {\^I}{\textonequarter}s with a corresponding increase of a factor of over 104 in the integrated or total number of photons emitted by each soot primary particle. For large aggregates and/or agglomerates in a vacuum after a delay of the order of 2 to 10 {\^I}{\textonequarter}s, the large particles fragment into smaller entities. We have also modelled the incandescence behaviour using well established methods.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2238-6},
	author = {Beyer, V. and Greenhalgh, D. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-Induced Incandescence},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {331},
	abstract = {Editorial},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2245-7},
	author = {Schulz, Christof}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence of flame-generated soot on a picosecond timescale},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {443 - 448},
	abstract = {This paper presents measurements of time-resolved laser-induced incandescence (LII) from soot recorded on a picosecond time scale. The 532-nm output from a picosecond Nd:YAG laser was used to heat the soot, and a streak camera was used to record the LII signal. The results are compared with data collected on a nanosecond time scale and with a time-dependent model that solves the energy- and mass-balance rate equations. Relative to the laser timing, the picosecond and nanosecond results are very similar. Signals increase during the laser pulse as soot temperatures increase and decrease after the laser pulse. The signal decay rates increase significantly with increasing laser fluence. The LII model gives good agreement with the nanosecond data at fluences {\^a}{\textperthousand}¤0.2 J/cm2 and underpredicts the signal decay rates at higher fluences. The picosecond temporal profiles increase significantly faster and earlier in the laser pulse than predicted by the model. This disagreement between the model and picosecond LII data may be attributable to perturbations to the signal by laser-induced fluorescence from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or other large organic species. The excited state or states responsible for this fluorescence appear to be accessed via a two-photon transition and have an effective lifetime of 55 ps.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2226-x},
	author = {Michelsen, H. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence: recent trends and current questions},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {333 - 354},
	abstract = {This paper provides an overview of a workshop focused on fundamental experimental and theoretical aspects of soot measurements by laser-induced incandescence (LII). This workshop was held in Duisburg, Germany in September 2005. The goal of the workshop was to review the current understanding of the technique and identify gaps in this understanding associated with experimental implementation, model descriptions, and signal interpretation. The results of this workshop suggest that uncertainties in the understanding of this technique are sufficient to lead to large variability among model predictions from different LII models, among measurements using different experimental approaches, and between modeled and measured signals, even under well-defined conditions. This article summarizes the content and conclusions of the workshop, discusses controversial topics and areas of disagreement identified during the workshop, and highlights recent important references related to these topics. It clearly demonstrates that despite the widespread application of LII for soot-concentration and particle-size measurements there is still a significant lack in fundamental understanding for many of the underlying physical processes.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2260-8},
	author = {C. Schulz and Kock, Boris F. and Hofmann, Max and H. Michelsen and Will, S. and Bougie, B. and Rainer Suntz and Smallwood, Gregory J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Peak soot temperature in laser-induced incandescence measurements},
	journal = {Appl.Phys. B},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {397-402},
	abstract = {In order to understand the processes involved in the laser-induced incandescence (LII) technique, the value of soot temperature at the peak of the incandescence signal has been studied. To this purpose, an absolute two-color LII technique has been applied on ethylene and methane diffusion flames, based on the comparison with a calibrated tungsten ribbon lamp. The dependence of peak temperature on the fluence has been investigated by using a sharply edged probe beam. Above a certain fluence threshold a value close to 4000 K was obtained for both flames at all locations, that means in largely different soot conditions. At a suitably selected laser fluence, radial and axial profiles of peak soot temperature and volume fraction were performed. Soot volume fraction data have been validated with results from laser extinction technique measurements. The quite low values observed for methane prove the sensitivity of the LII technique. Moreover, a discussion about soot refractive index is presented. In the visible region a test of its influence on both soot volume fraction and soot peak temperature was carried out, while in the infrared the heating process was analyzed.},
	isbn = {0946-2171},
	author = {De Iuliis, S. and Migliorini, F. and F. Cignoli and G. Zizak}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot volume fractions and primary particle size estimate by means of the simultaneous two-color-time-resolved and 2D laser-induced incandescence},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {413 - 421},
	abstract = {An original approach of laser-induced incandescence consisting in the simultaneous recording of the two-color-time-resolved and 2D LII signal is described in this paper. The application of this approach in an atmospheric pressure diffusion flame fueled with isooctane as well as inside the combustion chamber of a diesel engine is presented. Soot volume fraction and primary particle diameters are calculated, and the results are discussed. The mean diameter estimated by fitting the LII modeled curve on the experimental one is compared with the results obtained through soot sampling and microscope analyzing. The influence of the thermal accommodation coefficient and soot refractive index function is also discussed.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2236-8},
	author = {A. Boiarciuc and F. Foucher and C. Mouna{\"\i}m-Rousselle}
}
@article {,
	title = {TR-LII for sizing of carbon particles at room temperature},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	month = {06/2006},
	pages = {449 - 454},
	abstract = {Time-resolved laser-induced incandescence (TR-LII) was applied for the determination of particle sizes during carbon-particle formation from supersaturated atomic carbon vapor that was generated by laser photolysis of carbon suboxide (C<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub>) at room temperature. Thus, the solid carbon particles were formed under hydrogen-free conditions. The TR-LII technique was used for in situ size measurement of growing carbon particles and samples of final particles were analyzed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). It was found that the particles grow to a final size of 4\&ndash;12\&nbsp;nm within 0.02\&ndash;1\&nbsp;ms. The properties of the obtained particles depend on the initial conditions in the reaction volume, i.e. concentration of carbon suboxide, pressure and type of gas diluter, photolysis wavelength, and laser pulse energy. The comparison of TR-LII and TEM particle sizing results yields information about the effective thermal energy accommodation coefficients for He, Ar, CO, and C<sub>3</sub>O<sub>2</sub> molecules on carbon particles.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2199-9},
	author = {A. Eremin and E. Gurentsov and Hofmann, Max and Kock, Boris F. and C. Schulz}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence particle size measurements in a heavy-duty diesel engine},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {145},
	year = {2006},
	month = {05/2006},
	pages = {635-637},
	abstract = {Laser-induced incandescence (LII) is a relatively
new experimental method for studying the soot formation
process in flames. LII is based on the quasi-instantaneous heating of soot particles, by means of a high-energy pulsed laser beam, to almost their vaporization temperature, resulting in a strong but transient increase in their incandescence. After the laser pulse the particles cool down, at a rate which is dependent on their surface-to-volume ratio. The decay rate of the laser-induced incandescence intensity thus contains information on the particle size distribution within the irradiated volume. In this communication we report on the characterization of soot by time resolved LII (Tire-LII) measurements in a heavy-duty diesel engine, with peak pressures up to 6 MPa, paying particular attention to the correction required for the finite time resolution of the hardware, and to the role of the initial particle temperature.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2006.03.002},
	author = {Bougie, B. and Ganippa, L. C. and Van Vliet, A. P. and Meerts, W. L. and Dam, N. J. and ter Meulen, J. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Effects of primary soot particle size distribution on the temperature of soot particles heated by a nanosecond pulsed laser in an atmospheric laminar diffusion flame},
	journal = {International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer},
	volume = {49},
	year = {2006},
	month = {02/2006},
	pages = {777-788},
	abstract = {Temperature histories of nanosecond pulsed laser heated soot particles of different primary particle size distributions were calculated using a single primary particle based heat and mass transfer model under conditions of a typical atmospheric laminar diffusion flame. The critical peak soot particle temperatures beyond which soot particle sublimation cannot be neglected were identified to be about 3300{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}3400 K. Knowledge of this critical soot particle temperature is required to conduct low-fluence laser-induced incandescence experiments in which soot sublimation is avoided. After the laser pulse, the temperature of smaller primary soot particles decreases faster than that of larger ones as a result of larger surface area-to-volume ratio. Unlike the common belief that the peak soot particle temperature is independent of the primary particle diameter, the numerical results indicate that this assumption is valid only when soot sublimation is negligible and for primary soot particle diameters greater than about 20 nm. The effective temperature of a soot particle ensemble having different primary particle diameters in the laser probe volume was calculated based on the ratio of the total thermal radiation intensities of soot particles at 400 and 780 nm to simulate the experimentally measured soot particle temperature using two-color optical pyrometry. In the non-sublimation regime, the initial effective temperature decay rate after the peak soot temperature is related to the Sauter mean diameter of the primary soot particle diameter distribution. At longer times, the effective temperatures of soot particle ensembles start to display different decay rates for different soot primary particle diameter distributions. A simple approach was proposed in this study to infer the two parameters of lognormal distributed primary soot particle diameter. Application of this approach was demonstrated in an atmospheric laminar ethylene diffusion flame with the inferred primary soot particle diameter distribution compared with independent ex situ measurement.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2005.07.041},
	author = {Liu, Fengshan and Stagg, Barry J. and Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J.}
}
@proceedings {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence: Quantitative Interpretation, Modelling, Applications},
	journal = {Proc. 2nd Intl. Discussion Meeting and Workshop},
	volume = {211},
	year = {2006},
	month = {02/08/2006},
	publisher = {CEUR Workshop Proceedings},
	address = {Bad Herrenalb, Germany},
	abstract = {<ol><li><h6><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/proceedings_2006.pdf">Complete Proceedings</a></h6></li></ol><h6>Papers</h6><ol><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Modeling_Liu.pdf">Theoretical considerations in modeling LII at low pressures</a><br /><em>F. Liu, K. J. Daun, G. J. Smallwood</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/particle_size.pdf">Inverse analysis of time-resolved LII data</a><br /><em>K. J. Daun, F. Liu, G. J. Smallwood, B. J. Stagg, and D. R. Snelling</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/conduction.pdf">Heat conduction from spherical nano-particles</a><br /><em>F. Liu, K. J. Daun, G. J. Smallwood, and D. R. Snelling</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Zizak.pdf">Absorption correction of two-color LII-signals</a><br /><em>F. Migliorini, S. De Iuliis, F. Cignoli, G. Zizak</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Black.pdf">Longer laser pulses for practical LII</a><br /><em>J. D. Black</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Tribalet_final.pdf">TR-LII and PMS particle sizing applied to soot particles synthesized in a low-pressure flame reactor</a><br /><em>B. Tribalet, B.F. Kock, P. Ifeacho, P. Roth, C. Schulz</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Stirn.pdf">Time-resolved LII in comparison with mass spectrometry measurements in a premixed ethylene/air flame</a><br /><em>R. Stirn, K.P. Geigle, W. Meier, T. Gonzalez-Baquet, H.H. Grotheer, M. Aigner</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/wendler.pdf">Temperature measurements for LII evaluation in non-premixed flames \&ndash; comparison between emission spectroscopy and CARS</a><br /><em>M. Wendler, G. Guevara, M.C. Weikl, R. Sommer, F. Beyrau, T. Seeger and A. Leipertz</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Boiarciuc.pdf">Pressure effects on LII-signals</a><br /><em>A. Boiarciuc, F. Foucher, C. Mouna\&iuml;m-Rousselle</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Stagg.pdf">Effect of pressure on thermal accommodation coefficient</a><br /><em>B.J. Stagg</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Delhay.pdf">Laser-induced incandescence for measuring soot particle emission from aero-gas turbines</a><br /><em>J. Delhay, P. Desgroux, E. Therssen, John Black</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Doerr.pdf">Two-color time-resolved LII study of iron oxide nanoparticle formation in a premixed flat low pressure flame</a><br /><em>H. D\&ouml;rr, H. Bockhorn, and R. Suntz</em></li></ol><h6>Posters</h6><ol><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Bougie.pdf">In-cylinder particulate sizing with combined TR-LII/2C pyrometry</a><br /><em>B. Bougie, L.C. Ganippa, A.P. van Vliet, W.L. Meerts, N.J. Dam, J.J. ter Meulen</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/accommodationcoefficient.pdf">Measuring accommodation coefficients using laser-induced incandescence</a><br /><em>K. J. Daun, G. J. Smallwood, F. Liu, and D. R. Snelling</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Erenim.pdf">Comparison of TR-LII sizing for pure carbon and hydrogen-containing carbon particles</a><br /><em>A. Eremin, M. Falchenko, E. Gurentsov, B. Kock, R. Starke, C. Schulz</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Greenhalgh.pdf">LII in a high vacuum and up date and LII in carbon black from a particle generator</a><br /><em>V. Beyer and D. A. Greenhalgh, D. Clavel, K. Daun, F. Liu, B. Sawchuck, G. Smallwood, D. Snelling and K. Thomson</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Hadef.pdf">Particle size measurements with two color TIRE-LII</a><br /><em>R. Hadef, R. Stirn, KP. Geigle, M. Aigner</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Hofmann.pdf">A web-based interface for modeling laser-induced incandescence (LIISim)</a><br /><em>M. Hofmann, B.F. Kock, C. Schulz</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Extinction_Liu.pdf">Effects of soot absorption and scattering on LII intensities in a laminar coflow ethylene/air diffusion flame</a><br /><em>F. Liu, K. A. Thomson, G. J. Smallwood</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Dreier.pdf">Time-resolved laser-induced incandescence (TIRE-LII) coupled with spectral emission measurements for particle sizing in high-pressure diesel combustion environments</a><br /><em>R. Ryser, T. Gerber, T. Dreier</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-211/Thomson.pdf">Absolute intensity calibration of LII detectors</a><br /><em>K. A. Thomson, D. R. Snelling, G. J. Smallwood</em></li></ol>},
	isbn = {ISSN 1613-0073},
	url = {http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-211},
	author = {Rainer Suntz and Henning Bockhorn},
	editor = {Rainer Suntz and Henning Bockhorn}
}
@article {,
	title = {Modeling of time-resolved laser-induced incandescence transients for particle sizing in high-pressure spray combustion environments: a comparative study},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {403-411},
	abstract = {In this study experimental single-pulse, time-resolved laser-induced incandescence (TIRE-LII) signal intensity profiles acquired during transient Diesel combustion events at high pressure were processed. Experiments were performed between 0.6 and 7 MPa using a high-temperature high-pressure constant volume cell and a heavy-duty Diesel engine, respectively. Three currently available LII sub-model functions were investigated in their performance for extracting ensemble mean soot particle diameters using a least-squares fitting routine, and a {\^a}{\texteuro}{\oe}quick-fit{\^a}{\texteuro}? interpolation approach, respectively. In the calculations a particle size distribution as well as the temporal and spatial intensity profile of the heating laser was taken into account. For the poorly characterized sample environments of this work, some deficiencies in these state-of-the-art data evaluation procedures were revealed. Depending on the implemented model function, significant differences in the extracted particle size parameters are apparent. We also observe that the obtained {\^a}{\texteuro}{\oe}best-fit{\^a}{\texteuro}? size parameters in the fitting procedure are biased by the choice of their respective {\^a}{\texteuro}{\oe}first-guess{\^a}{\texteuro}? initial values. This behavior may be caused by the smooth temporal profile of the LII cooling curve, giving rise to shallow local minima on the multi-parameter least squares residuals, surface sampled during the regression analysis procedure. Knowledge of the gas phase temperature of the probed medium is considered important for obtaining unbiased size parameter information from TIRE-LII measurements.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00340-006-2207-0},
	author = {Dreier, T. and Bougie, B. and Dam, N. and Gerber, T.}
}
@article {,
	title = {On particulate characterisation in a heavy-duty Diesel engine by time-resolved laser-induced incandescence},
	journal = {Appl. Phys B, Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {83},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {477-485},
	abstract = {Time-resolved laser-induced incandescence (TR-LII) measurements have been performed inside the combustion chamber of a heavy-duty diesel engine running at low load and with regular diesel fuel. The LII traces were interpreted in terms of primary particle sizes, comparing two different assumed particle-size distributions: a mono-disperse and a log-normal distribution. The initial temperature of the particles (immediately after the laser pulse) is estimated by two-color pyrometry. We conclude that the initial temperature of the particles is not very critical for the outcome of the fitting procedure for the (mean) radius. Under the high-pressure conditions in the engine, the time dependence of the LII intensity contains sufficient structure to allow retrieval of details of the particle-size distribution.},
	url = {http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article\&id=doi:10.1007/s00340-006-2195-0},
	author = {Bougie, B. and Ganippa, L. C. and Dam, N. J. and ter Meulen, J. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Two-color laser-induced incandescence (2C-LII) technique for absolute soot volume fraction measurements in flames: erratum},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {45},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {3805},
	abstract = {The paper by De Iuliis et al. [Appl. Opt. 44, 7414 (2005)] contains a mistake in the printing of the parentheses in Eq. (9). The correction of the equation is given here.},
	author = {De Iuliis, S. and F. Cignoli and G. Zizak}
}
@article {,
	title = {Two-color time-resolved LII applied to soot particle sizing in the cylinder of a diesel engine},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	year = {2006},
	pages = {submitted},
	keywords = {diesel, LII, particle size, soot, time resolved LII},
	author = {Kock, Boris F. and C. Schulz and Roth, Paul}
}
@article {,
	title = {Comparison of LII and TEM sizing during synthesis of iron particle chains},
	journal = {Proceedings of the Combustion Institute},
	volume = {30},
	number = {1},
	year = {2005},
	month = {January 2005},
	pages = {1689-1697},
	abstract = {The two-color version of time-resolved laser-induced incandescence (TR-LII) as well as rapid particle probing and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were applied to the size measurement of chain-like iron particles, synthesized by thermal decomposition of ironpentacarbonyl (Fe(CO)5, IPC) in a hot-wall flow reactor. Both argon and nitrogen were used as carrier gases in different experiments. TR-LII theory considers particle heat transfer and particle evaporation for the interpretation of the measured signals in terms of particle size. The heat transfer from the particle to the surrounding was assumed to proceed under free molecular conditions, which requires the knowledge of the translational energy accommodation coefficient aT during particle cooling. By fitting calculated TR-LII cooling curves to the measured signals, it was possible to determine both aT and the mean primary particle diameter of an assumed lognormal size distribution. Close to the TR-LII measurement section, particles were rapidly sampled and analyzed by TEM. For the obtained chain-like agglomerated particle structures, the TR-LII measured size is in excellent agreement with the TEM determined primary particle size. The method was further validated by variation of the heat-up laser energy density in a wide range of conditions, and the resulting TR-LII diameter was found to be independent of it.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.proci.2004.07.034},
	author = {Kock, Boris F. and Kayan, Can and Knipping, J{\"o}rg and Orthner, Hans R. and Roth, Paul}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot concentration and temperature measurements in co-annular, nonpremixed CH4/air laminar flames at pressures up to 4 MPa},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {140},
	number = {3},
	year = {2005},
	month = {February 2005},
	pages = {222-232},
	abstract = {Laminar nonpremixed methane{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}air flames were studied over the pressure range of 0.5 to 4 MPa using a new high-pressure combustion chamber. Flame characterization showed very good flame stability over the range of pressures, with a flame tip rms flicker of less than 1\% in flame height. At all pressures, soot was completely oxidized within the visible flame. Spectral soot emission (SSE) and line-of-sight attenuation (LOSA) measurements provided radially resolved measurements of soot volume fraction and soot temperature at pressures from 0.5 to 4.0 MPa. Such measurements provide an improved understanding of the influence of pressure on soot formation and have not been reported previously in laminar nonpremixed flames for pressures above 0.4 MPa. SSE and LOSA soot concentration values typically agree to within 30\% and both methods exhibit similar trends in the spatial distribution of soot concentration. Maximum soot concentration depended on pressure according to a power law, where the exponent on pressure is about 2 for the range of pressures between 0.5 and 2.0 MPa, and about 1.2 for 2.0 to 4.0 MPa. Peak carbon conversion to soot also followed a power-law dependence on pressure, where the pressure exponent is unity for pressures between 0.5 and 2.0 MPa and 0.1 for 2.0 to 4.0 MPa. The pressure dependence of sooting propensity diminished at pressures above 2.0 MPa. Soot concentrations measured in this work, when transformed to line-integrated values, are consistent with the measurements of Flower and Bowman for pressures up to 1.0 MPa [Proc. Combust Inst. 21 (1986) 1115{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}1124] and Lee and Na for pressures up to 0.4 MPa [JSME Int. J. Ser. B 43 (2000) 550{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}555]. Soot temperature measurements indicate that the overall temperatures decrease with increasing pressure; however, the differences diminish with increasing height in the flame. Low down in the flame, temperatures are about 150 K lower at pressures of 4.0 MPa than those at 0.5 MPa. In the upper half of the flame the differences reduce to 50 K.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2004.11.012},
	author = {Kevin A. Thomson and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L. and Elizabeth J. Weckman and Roydon A. Fraser and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Snelling, David R.}
}
@proceedings {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence: Quantitative Interpretation, Modelling, Application},
	journal = {Proc. Intl. Bunsen Discussion Meeting and Workshop},
	volume = {195},
	year = {2005},
	month = {25/09/2005},
	publisher = {CEUR Workshop Proceedings},
	address = {Duisburg, Germany},
	abstract = {<h3>Papers </h3><ol><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/kuhlmann.pdf">Heat conduction issues in laser-induced incandescence</a><br /><em>S.-A. Kuhlmann, J. Reimann, S. Will</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/bladh.pdf">A detailed experimental and theoretical comparison of spatially-resolved laser-induced incandescence signals</a><br /><em>H. Bladh, J. Delhay, Y. Bouvier, E. Therssen, P-E. Bengtsson, P. Desgroux</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/michelsen.pdf">Investigations of the mechanisms involved in LII particle detection</a><br /><em>H. A. Michelsen, M. Y. Gershenzon, P.O. Witze</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/liu.pdf">Influence of polydisperse distributions of both primary particle and aggregate sizes on soot temperature in low-fluence laser-induced incandescence</a><br /><em>F. Liu, M. Yang, F. A. Hill, G. J. Smallwood, D. R. Snelling</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/stagg.pdf">2-Color LII measurements of carbon black: Interpretation for quantitative measurement of fineness</a><br /><em>B.J. Stagg</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/bouvier.pdf">Wavelength-dependence of refractive index function of soot particle by two-color laser induced incandescence</a><br /><em>Y. Bouvier, E. Therssen, P. Desgroux</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/snelling.pdf">An LII technique independent of ex-situ calibration by detecting absolute light intensity</a><br /><em>D. R. Snelling, G. J. Smallwood, F. Liu, \&Ouml;. L. G\&uuml;lder, W. D. Bachalo</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/black.pdf">Laser-induced processes in carbon generated in an argon arc</a><br /><em>J.D. Black, M.P. Johnson</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/beyer.pdf">An investigation of soot nanoparticulate in a vacuum</a><br /><em>V. Beyer, D.A. Greenhalgh</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/thomson.pdf">Laser-induced incandescence measurements in a laminar co-annular non-premixed methane/air flame at pressures of 0.5 to 4.0 MPa</a><br /><em>K. A. Thomson, D. R. Snelling, G. J. Smallwood, F. Liu</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/geigle.pdf">Laser-induced incandescence and shifted vibrational CARS in laminar premixed flames at atmospheric and elevated pressures</a><br /><em>K.P. Geigle, M.S. Tsurikov, W. Meier, V. Kr\&uuml;ger, R. Hadef</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/hofmann.pdf">Laser-induced incandescence and multi-line NO thermometry for soot diagnostics at high pressures</a><br /><em>M. Hofmann, H. Kronemayer, B. F. Kock, C. Schulz</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/bougie.pdf">Soot particulate size measurements in a heavy duty Diesel engine</a><br /><em>B. Bougie, L.C. Ganippa, A.P. van Vliet, N.J. Dam, W.L. Meerts, J.J. ter Meulen</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/dreier.pdf">Modeling of time-resolved laser-induced incandescence (TIRE-LII) transients for particle sizing in high-pressure spray combustion environments</a><br /><em>T. Dreier, B. Bougie, L. Ganippa, N. Dam, T. Gerber, J.J. ter Meulen</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/eremin.pdf">Application of TR-LII for the study of carbon vapor condensation at room temperature</a><br /><em>A. Eremin, E. Gurentsov, M. Hofmann, C. Schulz</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/lucas.pdf">Planar laser-induced incandescence of iron particles in welding fumes</a><br /><em>O. Lucas, Z. Alwahabi, V. Linton</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/kock.pdf">Time-resolved laser-induced-incandescence (TR-LII) for iron-particle sizing</a><br /><em>B. Kock, J. Knipping, H.R. Orthner, C. Kayan, C. Schulz, P. Roth</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/schittkowski.pdf">Laser-induced incandescence of free and surface-adsorbed particles</a><br /><em>T. Schittkowski, D. B\&ouml;ker, D. Br\&uuml;ggemann</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/charwath.pdf">In-situ determination of gas-to-particle reaction generated nanoscaled particles</a><br /><em>M. Charwath, T. Lehre, R. Suntz, H. Bockhorn</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/qamar.pdf">Two-dimensional imaging of soot volume fraction and OH in turbulent jet diffusion flames spanning low to high mixing rates</a><br /><em>N. H. Qamar, Z.T. Alwahabi, G. J. Nathan, K. D. King</em> </li></ol><h3>Posters</h3><ol><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/deiuliis.pdf">Peak soot temperature in laser-induced incandescence measurements</a><br /><em>S. De Iuliis, F. Cignoli, G. Zizak</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/boiarciuc.pdf">Soot volume fractions and primary particle size estimations by means of simultaneous time-resolved and 2D laser-induced incandescence</a><br /><em>A. Boiarciuc, F. Foucher, C. Mouna\&iuml;m-Rousselle</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/kockp.pdf">Time-resolved laser-induced incandescence applied to in-cylinder Diesel particle sizing</a><br /><em>B. F. Kock, C. Schulz, P. Roth</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/kronemayer.pdf">Gas-phase temperature imaging in sooting flames by multi-line NO-LIF thermometry</a><br /><em>H. Kronemayer, M. Hofmann, K. Omerbegovic, C. Schulz</em> </li><li><a href="http://sunsite.informatik.rwth-aachen.de/Publications/CEUR-WS//Vol-195/liup.pdf">A critical evaluation of the thermal accommodation coefficient of soot determined by the laser-induced incandescence technique</a><br /><em>F. Liu, D. R. Snelling, G. J. Smallwood</em> </li></ol>},
	isbn = {ISSN 1613-0073},
	url = {http://ceur-ws.org/Vol-195},
	author = {Schulz, Christof},
	editor = {Schulz, Christof}
}
@article {,
	title = {A calibration-independent laser-induced incandescence technique for soot measurement by detecting absolute light intensity},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {44},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {6773-6785},
	abstract = {Laser-induced incandescence (LII) has proved to be a useful diagnostic tool for spatially and temporally resolved measurement of particulate (soot) volume fraction and primary particle size in a wide range of applications, such as steady flames, flickering flames, and Diesel engine exhausts. We present a novel LII technique for the determination of soot volume fraction by measuring the absolute incandescence intensity, avoiding the need for ex situ calibration that typically uses a source of particles with known soot volume fraction. The technique developed in this study further extends the capabilities of existing LII for making practical quantitative measurements of soot. The spectral sensitivity of the detection system is determined by calibrating with an extended source of known radiance, and this sensitivity is then used to interpret the measured LII signals. Although it requires knowledge of the soot temperature, either from a numerical model of soot particle heating or experimentally determined by detecting LII signals at two different wavelengths, this technique offers a calibration-independent procedure for measuring soot volume fraction. Application of this technique to soot concentration measurements is demonstrated in a laminar diffusion flame.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1364/AO.44.006773},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Liu, Fengshan and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L. and William D. Bachalo}
}
@article {222,
	title = {Comparison of laser-induced incandescence method with scanning mobility particle sizer technique: The influence of probe sampling and laser heating on soot particle size distribution},
	journal = {Measurement Science \& Technology},
	volume = {16},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1477-1486},
	keywords = {LII, SMPS, soot},
	doi = {10.1088/0957-0233/16/7/010},
	author = {Kr{\"u}ger, V. and Wahl, C. and Hadef, R. and Geigle, Klaus Peter and Stricker, W. and Aigner, M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Dual-Laser LIDELS: An Optical Diagnostic for Time-Resolved Volatile Fraction Measurements of Diesel Particulate Emissions},
	year = {2005},
	institution = {SAE},
	abstract = {Double-pulse laser-induced desorption with elastic laser scattering (LIDELS) is a diagnostic technique capable of making time-resolved, in situ measurements of the volatile fraction of diesel particulate matter (PM). The technique uses two laser pulses of comparable energy, separated in time by an interval sufficiently short to freeze the flow field, to measure the change in PM volume caused by laser-induced desorption of the volatile fraction. The first laser pulse of a pulse-pair produces elastic laser scattering (ELS) that gives the total PM volume, and also deposits the energy to desorb the volatiles. ELS from the second pulse gives the volume of the remaining solid portion of the PM, and the ratio of these two measurements is the quantitative solid volume fraction.

In an earlier study, we used a single laser to make real-time LIDELS measurements during steady-state operation of a diesel engine. In this paper, we discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the two LIDELS techniques and present measurements made in real diesel exhaust and simulated diesel exhaust created by coating diffusion-flame soot with single-component hydrocarbons. Comparison with analysis of PM collected on quartz filters reveals that LIDELS considerably underpredicts the volatile fraction. We discuss reasons for this discrepancy and recommend future directions for LIDELS research.},
	isbn = {2005-01-3791},
	url = {http://www.sae.org/servlets/productDetail?PROD_TYP=PAPER\&PROD_CD=2005-01-3791},
	author = {Peter O. Witze and Michael Gershenzon and Michelsen, Hope A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Effects of primary particle diameter and aggregate size distribution on the temperature of soot particles heated by pulsed lasers},
	journal = {Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer},
	volume = {93},
	number = {1-3},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {301-312},
	abstract = {Temperature histories of nanosecond-pulsed laser-heated soot particles of different primary particle diameters and different aggregate sizes were calculated using an aggregate-based heat transfer model. Relatively low laser fluences were considered to ensure maximum particle temperatures were below about 3800 K to avoid soot particle sublimation. After the laser pulse, the temperature of soot particles in larger aggregates decreases more slowly than that of particles in smaller aggregates due to the increased shielding effect. For a given aggregate size, the temperature of particles of smaller diameter decays faster as a result of a larger surface area-to-volume ratio. The effective temperature of soot particles in the laser probe volume was calculated based on the ratio of thermal radiation intensities of soot particles at 400 and 780 nm to simulate the experimentally measured soot particle temperature using two-color optical pyrometry. The effect of aggregate size distribution of soot particles on the effective particle temperature was investigated under different initial temperatures.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2004.08.027},
	author = {Liu, Fengshan and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Snelling, David R.}
}
@article {326,
	title = {Investigation of laminar pressurized flames for soot model validation using SV-CARS and LII},
	journal = {Proceedings of the Combustion Institute},
	volume = {30},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1645-1653},
	abstract = {Quasi-simultaneous measurements of temperature and soot volume fraction in pressurized and atmospheric
flames are presented. A dual-flame burner concept yielded stable laminar flames for a variety of
equivalence ratios, pressures, and fuels, and permitted the investigation of flames without the influence
of soot oxidation. A CARS-based technique (shifted vibrational CARS) for temperature measurements,
which offers high accuracy over the entire relevant temperature and soot concentration range, is described.
Comparison of temperature measurements in the nonsooting part of a laminar diffusion flame at atmospheric
pressure by SV-CARS and conventional N2 Q-branch CARS yielded excellent agreement. This
new technique was applied to quasi-1D laminar flames with soot concentrations up to 10 ppm and pressures
up to 5 bar. The temperature profiles measured in these flames were combined with soot concentration
measurements using LII; calibration and correction for signal trapping yielded quantitative soot
volume fraction data. The temperature and soot concentration data were combined to generate a comprehensive
dataset for the validation of an improved kinetic soot model for the prediction of soot formation in
premixed combustion at elevated pressure.},
	keywords = {Laminar premixed, Laser diagnostics, Pressurized flames, soot},
	isbn = {ISSN 1540-7489},
	author = {Geigle, Klaus Peter and Schneider-K{\"u}hnle, Y. and Tsurikov, M. S. and Hadef, R. and R. L{\"u}ckerath and Kr{\"u}ger, V. and Stricker, W. and Aigner, M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-based investigation of soot formation in laminar premixed flames at atmospheric and elevated pressures},
	journal = {Combustion Science and Technology},
	volume = {177},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1835-1862},
	abstract = {An experimental investigation into soot formation in laminar premixed flames at atmospheric and elevated pressures (1{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}5 bar) has been conducted. The flames were produced in a dual-flame burner enclosed in a pressure housing. Quantitative soot volume fraction measurements were obtained using laser-induced incandescence coupled with a quasi-simultaneous absorption measurement for calibration; the data were corrected for signal trapping using an {\^a}{\texteuro}\~{}{\^a}{\texteuro}\~{}onion peeling{\^a}{\texteuro}{\texttrademark}{\^a}{\texteuro}{\texttrademark} algorithm. Temperature measurements were obtained using shifted vibrational coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering, which yields well-resolved, accurate temperature measurements in sooting
and nonsooting environments. Results are presented for stable homogeneous flames using air as oxidizer and ethylene, propylene, and toluene as fuels. The variation of soot volume fraction and temperature with height above burner and as a function of fuel,equivalence ratio, and pressure are presented and discussed. The present soot data are well represented by a first-order growth rate
law. The data identify trends and features useful for the validation of numerical models of soot formation.},
	keywords = {soot volume fraction, premixed flame, temperature,},
	isbn = {0010-2202 print/1563-521},
	url = {http://www.swetswise.com/eAccess/viewToc.do?titleID=45147\&yevoID=1547563},
	author = {Tsurikov, M. S. and Geigle, Klaus Peter and Kr{\"u}ger, V. and Schneider-K{\"u}hnle, Y. and Stricker, W. and R. L{\"u}ckerath and Hadef, R. and Aigner, M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Mesures de la taille et de la concentration de la suie dans une flamme laminaire premelangee},
	journal = {International Review of the Institut Fran{\~A}{\textsection}ais du Petrole},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {in press},
	keywords = {flame, LII, particle size, soot, time resolved LII},
	author = {Hadef, R. and Kr{\"u}ger, V. and Geigle, Klaus Peter and Tsurikov, M. S. and Schneider-K{\"u}hnle, Y. and Aigner, M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Optical diagnostics of diesel spray injections and combustion in a high-pressure high-temperature cell},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {80},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {1039-1045},
	abstract = {We report on spatially and temporally resolved optical diagnostic measurements of propagation and combustion of diesel sprays introduced through a single-hole fuel injector into a constant volume, high-temperature, high-pressure cell. From shadowgraphy images in non-reacting environments of pure nitrogen, penetration lengths and dispersion angles were determined for non-vaporizing and vaporizing conditions, and found to be in reasonable agreement with standard models for liquid jet propagation and break-up.
Quasi-simultaneous two-dimensional images were obtained of laser elastic light scattering, shadowgraphs and spectrally integrated flame emission in a reacting environment (cell temperature 850 K). In addition laser-induced incandescence was employed for the identification of soot-loaded regions. The simultaneously recorded spray images exhibit remarkable structural similarity and provide complementary information about the spray propagation and combustion process. The measurements also reveal the fuel vapor cloud extending well beyond the liquid core and close to the nozzle tip. Ignition takes place close to the tip of the spray within the mixing layer of fuel vapor and surrounding air. Soot is formed in the vapor core region at the tip of the liquid fuel jet. Our results support recently developed phenomenological model on diesel spray combustion.},
	url = {http://www.springerlink.com/openurl.asp?genre=article\&id=doi:10.1007/s00340-005-1830-5},
	author = {Bougie, B. and Tulej, M. and Dreier, T. and Dam, N. J. and ter Meulen, J. J. and Gerber, T.}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Soot characterization with laser induced incandescence in a heavy duty diesel engine},
	booktitle = {European Combustion Meeting 2005},
	year = {2005},
	address = {Louvain la Neuve, Belgium},
	author = {Bougie, B. and Ganippa, L. C. and Van Vliet, A. P. and Dam, N. and Meerts, W. L. and ter Meulen, J. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Two-color laser-induced incandescence (2C-LII) technique for absolute soot volume fraction measurements in flames},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {44},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {7414-7423},
	abstract = {A two-color version of the laser-induced incandescence (2C-LII) technique was implemented for measuring absolute soot volume fraction in flames. By using a calibrated tungsten ribbon lamp, soot peak temperatures were measured as a function of fluence at several locations in an ethylene diffusion flame by using a steeply edged laser beam profile. Above a certain fluence threshold, peak temperatures were tightly distributed just above 4000 K independent of the particle size and number density. Radial profiles of soot volume fraction were obtained and compared (not calibrated) with results from the laser extinction technique. Good agreement showed the validity of the 2C-LII technique at a controlled fluence.},
	author = {De Iuliis, S. and F. Cignoli and G. Zizak}
}
@article {,
	title = {2D imaging of laser wing effects and of soot sublimation in laser-induced incandescence measurements},
	journal = {Appl. Phys. B},
	volume = {81},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {181-186},
	author = {Delhay, J. and Bouvier, Y. and Therssen, E. and Black, J. D. and Desgroux, P.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Assessment of soot particle vaporization effects during laser-induced incandescence with time-resolved light scattering},
	journal = {Appl.  Opt.},
	volume = {20},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {4211-4219},
	author = {Yoder, G. D. and Diwakar, P. K and Hahn, D. W.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Simultaneous planar laser-induced incandescence, OH planar laser-induced fluorescence, and droplet Mie scattering in swirl-stabilized spray flames},
	journal = {Appl.  Opt.},
	volume = {44},
	number = {3},
	year = {2005},
	pages = {445-454},
	author = {Terrence R. Meyer and Sukesh Roy and Vincent M. Belovich and Edwin Corporan and JAmes R. Gord}
}
@article {,
	title = {Determination of the soot absorption function and thermal accommodation coefficient using low-fluence LII in a laminar coflow ethylene diffusion flame},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {136},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {180-190},
	abstract = {Effective temperatures of pulsed-laser-heated soot particles were derived from their thermal emission intensities using optical pyrometry in a laminar ethylene coflow diffusion flame. The present study concerns conditions of relatively low laser fluences under which soot particles are heated to temperatures below 3500 K to avoid complications of soot particle vaporization in both the experiment and the numerical calculations. The current nanoscale heat transfer model for laser-induced incandescence (LII) of soot was improved to account for the effect of the fractal structure of soot aggregates on the rate of heat loss to the surrounding gas. Mean primary soot particle diameter and mean aggregate size at the location of measurement were determined using the technique of thermophoretic sampling/transmission electron microscopy analysis. Numerical calculations based on the improved LII model were conducted to predict the soot particle temperature with known gas temperature, the heat conduction coefficient, the primary particle diameter, and the mean aggregate size, as well as values of assumed soot absorption function E(m) and the thermal accommodation coefficient of soot. The experimentally observed soot temperature history, characterized by the peak value and the temporal decay rate, cannot be reproduced numerically using the values of E(m) and a found in the literature. By utilizing the experimental peak temperature and temporal decay rate new values of E(m) at 1064 nm and the thermal accommodation coefficient were determined. Uncertainties in the derived values of E(m) and the thermal accommodation coefficient caused by the uncertainty in the primary soot particle diameter and the mean aggregate size were analyzed. A novel method to determine the values of the soot absorption function E(m) and the thermal accommodation coefficient was developed in the present study.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2003.09.013},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Liu, Fengshan and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Distribution of the number of primary particles of soot aggregates in a nonpremixed laminar flame},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {138},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {195-198},
	abstract = {Experimental data on the probability distribution of N, from which Ng and {\"I}{\textflorin}2g are derived, for soot aggregates sampled within a laminar diffusion flame environment have not been published. The objective of the present investigation is to report such experimental data and to gain a better understanding of the distribution of N of soot aggregates thermophoretically sampled from a laminar ethylene/air diffusion flame by analyzing thousands of aggregates in TEM (transmission electron microscopy) images.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.combustflame.2004.04.008},
	author = {Tian, Kuo and Liu, Fengshan and Kevin A. Thomson and Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Wang, Dashan}
}
@article {,
	title = {Small particle analysis by laser induced incandescence},
	year = {2004},
	address = {USA},
	abstract = {The method and apparatus of laser-induced incandescence (LII) to analyze characteristics of submicron-sized particles are described. LII is recognized as a good tool for determining the characteristics of small particles in a gas, e.g., volume fraction, particle size, and specific surface area. It uses the fact that the incandescence signal is proportional to the volume of the particles. It also uses the fact that transient cooling is dependent on the specific surface area of the particle, which is related to diameter of the particle. In LII, particles are heated by a pulsed laser light beam to a temperature where incandescence from the particles can be distinguished from ambient light. The temperature of particles and their volume fraction governs the incandescence. The temperature decay rate is proportional to the primary particle size. The invention uses an optical arrangement that ensures a near-uniform laser energy distribution spatial profile. The invention also uses a low fluence laser beam pulse to avoid evaporation of particles. Without significant evaporation and with a uniform energy profile, accurate and precise measurements can be conducted more easily and reliably.},
	url = {http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1\&Sect2=HITOFF\&d=PALL\&p=1\&u=\%2Fnetahtml\%2FPTO\%2Fsrchnum.htm\&r=1\&f=G\&l=50\&s1=6809820.PN.\&OS=PN/6809820\&RS=PN/6809820},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L. and Liu, Fengshan}
}
@article {,
	title = {Characteristics of laser-induced incandescence from soot in studies of a time-dependent heat- and mass-transfer model},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {78},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {241-248},
	keywords = {LII beam profile, LII model},
	author = {Bladh, H. and Per-Erik Bengtsson}
}
@article {,
	title = {Nanoparticle production by UV irradiation of combustion generated soot particles},
	journal = {J. Nanoparticle Res.},
	volume = {6},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {467-477},
	author = {Stipe, C. B. and Choi, J. H. and Lucas, D. and Koshland, C. P. and Sawyer, R. F.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Two-color laser-induced incandescence and cavity ring-down spectroscopy for sensitive and quantitative imaging of soot and PAHs in flames},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {78},
	number = {3-4},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {485-492},
	author = {C. Schoemaecker Moreau and Therssen, E. and X. Mercier and J. F. Pauwels and Desgroux, P.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Two-color laser-induced incandescence and cavity ring-down spectroscopy for sensitive and quantitative imaging of soot and PAHs in flames},
	journal = {Appl. Phys. B},
	volume = {78},
	year = {2004},
	pages = {485-492},
	author = {Schoemaecker Moreau, C. and Therssen, E. and X. Mercier and J. F. Pauwels and Desgroux, P.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Time-Resolved Laser-Induced Incandescence of Soot: The Influence of Experimental Factors and Microphysical Mechanisms},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {42},
	number = {27},
	year = {2003},
	month = {September 2003},
	pages = {5577-5590},
	abstract = {We present a data set for testing models of time-resolved laser-induced incandescence of soot. Measurements were made in a laminar ethene diffusion flame over a wide range of laser fluences at 532 nm. The laser was seeded to provide a smooth temporal profile, and the beam was spatially filtered and imaged into the flame to provide a homogeneous spatial profile. The particle incandescence was imaged onto a fast photodiode. The measurements are compared with the standard Melton model and with a new model that incorporates physical mechanisms not included in the Melton model.},
	url = {http://ao.osa.org/abstract.cfm?id=74256},
	author = {Michelsen, Hope A. and Peter O. Witze and David Kayes and Simone Hochgreb}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-Induced Incandescence for Soot Diagnostics at High Pressures},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {42},
	number = {12},
	year = {2003},
	month = {April 2003},
	pages = {2052-2062},
	abstract = {The influence of pressure on laser-induced incandescence (LII) is investigated systematically in premixed, laminar, sooting ethylene /air flames at 1-15 bar with wavelength-, laser fluence-, and time-resolved detection. In the investigated pressure range the LII signal decay rate is proportional to pressure. This observation is consistent with the prediction of heat-transfer models in the free-molecular regime. Pressure does not systematically affect the relationship between LII signal and laser fluence. With appropriate detection timing the pressure influence on LII signal "s proportionality to soot volume fraction obtained by extinction measurements is only minor compared with the variation observed in different flames at fixed pressures. The implications for particle sizing and soot volume fraction measurements using LII techniques at elevated pressures are discussed.},
	url = {http://ao.osa.org/abstract.cfm?id=71880},
	author = {Hofmann, Max and Bessler, Wolfgang G. and Schulz, Christof and Jander, Helga}
}
@article {,
	title = {Understanding and predicting the temporal response of laser-induced incandescence from carbonaceous particles},
	journal = {Journal of Chemical Physics},
	volume = {118},
	year = {2003},
	pages = {7012-7045},
	abstract = {This paper describes a model for analyzing and predicting the temporal behavior of laser-induced incandescence (LII) from combustion-generated soot, carbon black, and other carbonaceous particles on a nanosecond time scale. The model accounts for particle heating by absorption of light from a pulsed laser and cooling by sublimation, conduction, and radiation. The model also includes mechanisms for oxidation, melting, and annealing of the particles and nonthermal photodesorption of carbon clusters from the particle surface. At fluences above 0.1 J/cm2, particle temperatures during the laser pulse are determined by the balance between absorption and sublimation, whereas at lower fluences particle temperatures do not reach the sublimation temperature, and temperatures are predominantly controlled by absorption and conduction. After the laser pulse, temperatures are predominantly controlled by conductive cooling rates. Oxidative heating may compete with conductive cooling on these time scales. Annealing of the particles to a more ordered phase of carbon is predicted to occur at fluences as low as 0.02 J/cm2. Annealing may strongly influence sublimation rates, and changes in emissivity during annealing are predicted to increase signal decay rates. Supersonic expansion of the carbon clusters sublimed from the surface is calculated to occur at fluences above 0.12 J/cm2. When compared with LII measurements recorded in a flame at atmospheric pressure, the model reproduces the shapes and relative magnitudes of LII temporal profiles over a wide range of laser fluences. Comparisons between model predictions and experimental observations suggest that the particles do not melt at laser fluences that lead to melting of bulk graphite. These comparisons also indicate that the energy released during particle annealing is much smaller than that released during annealing of neutron- or electron-irradiated graphite. Despite good agreement between model and experimental results, large uncertainties exist for input parameters used to calculate annealing rates and rates of oxidation, conduction, absorption, emission, and photolytic desorption of carbon clusters for both the initial and annealed particles.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1559483},
	author = {Michelsen, Hope A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {UV-VIS-NIR spectral optical properties of soot and soot-containing aerosols},
	journal = {Journal of Aerosol Science},
	volume = {34},
	year = {2003},
	pages = {1421-1444},
	abstract = {The UV-VIS-NIR spectral optical properties of soot and soot containing aerosols were investigated in detail during the AIDA Soot Aerosol Campaign 1999. One aim of the campaign was a comprehensive comparison of the microphysical properties of Diesel and spark generator soot. The mass specific extinction cross section at {\^I}{\guillemotright}=450 nm of Diesel soot is 10.6{\^A}{\textpm}0.5 m2 g{\^a}{\textasciicircum}{\textquoteright}1 which is almost a factor of two larger than the corresponding value of 5.7{\^A}{\textpm}0.3 m2 g{\^a}{\textasciicircum}{\textquoteright}1 measured for spark generator soot. Coagulation-induced particle growth does not affect the soot extinction cross section and has a weak influence on the scattering properties of the soot aggregates. Atmospheric processing of freshly emitted soot was simulated in mixing experiments. The formation of mixed Diesel soot and dry ammonium sulfate particles by coagulation has only a minor effect on the soot absorption cross section. The coating of spark generated soot with organic material results in a strong increase of the single scattering albedo. A significant increase of the absorption coefficient at {\^I}{\guillemotright}=473 nm during the coating process can be attributed to an enhancement of the specific soot absorption cross section by more than 30\%.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-8502(03)00361-6},
	author = {Schnaiter, M. and Horvath, H. and Mohler, O. and Naumann, K.-H. and Saathoff, H. and Schock, O. W.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence (LII) for soot diagnostics at high pressure},
	journal = {Appl. Opt.},
	volume = {42},
	number = {12},
	year = {2003},
	pages = {2052-2062},
	abstract = {The influence of pressure on laser-induced incandescence (LII) is investigated systematically in premixed, laminar, sooting ethylene/air flames at 1-15 bar with wavelength-, laser fluence-, and time-resolved detection. In the investigated pressure range the LII signal decay rate is proportional to pressure. This observation is consistent with the prediction of heat-transfer models in the free-mol. regime. Pressure does not systematically affect the relation between LII signal and laser fluence. With appropriate detection timing the pressure influence on LII signal{\textquoteright}s proportionality to soot vol. fraction obtained by extinction measurements is only minor compared with the variation obsd. in different flames at fixed pressures. The implications for particle sizing and soot vol. fraction measurements using LII techniques at elevated pressures are discussed.},
	keywords = {laser induced incandescence soot diagnostics high pressure},
	author = {Hofmann, Max and Bessler, Wolfgang G. and C. Schulz and Jander, Helga}
}
@article {,
	title = {Nano-particle sizing by laser-induced incandescence (LII) in a shock wave reactor},
	journal = {Shock Waves},
	volume = {12},
	year = {2003},
	pages = {351-360},
	keywords = {LII, particle size, shock tube, soot},
	author = {Starke, R. and Kock, Boris F. and Roth, Paul}
}
@article {,
	title = {Size distributions of nanoscaled particles and gas temperatures from time-resolved laser-induced incandescence measurements},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {42},
	number = {12},
	year = {2003},
	pages = {2021-2030},
	keywords = {LII, particle size, soot, time resolved LII},
	author = {Lehre, Th. and Jungfleisch, B. and Rainer Suntz and Henning Bockhorn}
}
@article {,
	title = {Sizing soot and micronic carbonaceous particle in spray flames base on time resolved LII},
	journal = {Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science},
	volume = {27},
	year = {2003},
	pages = {455-463},
	keywords = {LII, particle size, soot, time resolved LII},
	author = {Allouis, C. and Beretta, F. and D{\textquoteright}Alessio, A.}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Two-color TR-LII applied to in-cylinder Diesel particle sizing},
	booktitle = {Proc. of the European Combustion Meeting},
	year = {2003},
	address = {Orl{\~A}{\textcopyright}ans},
	author = {Kock, Boris F. and Roth, Paul}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Effect of EGR on Heavy-Duty Diesel Engine Emissions Characterized with Laser-Induced Incandescence},
	booktitle = {ASME-ICED 2002 Fall Technical Conference},
	year = {2002},
	month = {Sept. 8-11},
	address = {New Orleans},
	author = {W. Stuart Neill and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Snelling, David R. and Robert A. Sawchuk and Daniel J. Clavel and Daniel Gareau and Wallace L. Chippior}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Investigation of LII for Online Measurement of Nanoparticle Surface Area in a Carbon Black Reactor},
	booktitle = {Twenty-Ninth Symposium (International) on Combustion},
	year = {2002},
	month = {July 21-26},
	pages = {WIP 3-1411},
	address = {Sapporo, Japan},
	author = {Smallwood, Gregory J. and Stagg, Barry J. and William D. Bachalo}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Small-Angle Neutron Scattering of Soot Formed in Laminar Premixed Ethylene Flames},
	booktitle = {Twenty-Ninth Symposium (International) on Combustion},
	year = {2002},
	month = {July 21-26},
	address = {Sapporo, Japan},
	author = {Wang, H. and Zhao, B. and Wyslouzil, B. and Streletzky, K.}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Soot Detection Using Excimer Laser Fragmentation Fluorescence Spectroscopy},
	booktitle = {Twenty-Ninth Symposium (International) on Combustion},
	year = {2002},
	month = {July 21-26},
	address = {Sapporo, Japan},
	author = {Stipe, C. B. and Higgins, B. S. and Lucas, D. and Koshland, C. P. and Sawyer, R. F.}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Spatially-Resolved Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering Studies of Soot Inception and Growth},
	booktitle = {Twenty-Ninth Symposium (International) on Combustion},
	year = {2002},
	month = {July 21-26},
	address = {Sapporo, Japan},
	author = {Hessler, J. P. and Seifert, S. and Winans, R. E.}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Determination of the Soot Absorption Function and Accommodation Coefficient Using Low-Fluence LII},
	booktitle = {Twenty-Ninth Symposium (International) on Combustion},
	year = {2002},
	month = {July 21 - 26},
	pages = {WIP 3-1354},
	address = {Sapporo, Japan},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Liu, Fengshan and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@conference {,
	title = {High-Energy, Pulsed Laser Diagnostics for Real-Time Measurements of Reciprocating Engine PM Emissions},
	booktitle = {8th Diesel Engine Emissions Reduction Conference},
	year = {2002},
	month = {August 25-29},
	address = {San Diego},
	author = {Peter O. Witze}
}
@article {,
	title = {Effects of gas and soot radiation on soot formation in a coflow laminar ethylene diffusion flame},
	journal = {Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer},
	volume = {73},
	number = {2-5},
	year = {2002},
	month = {15 April-1 June},
	pages = {409-421},
	abstract = {A computational study of soot formation in an undilute axisymmetric laminar ethylene-air coflow jet diffusion flame at atmospheric pressure was conducted using a detailed gas-phase reaction mechanism and complex thermal and transport properties. A simple two-equation soot model was employed to predict soot formation, growth, and oxidation with interactions between the soot chemistry and the gas-phase chemistry taken into account. Both the optically thin model and the discrete-ordinates method coupled with a statistical narrow-band correlated-K based wide band model for radiative properties of CO, CO2, H2O, and soot were employed in the calculation of radiation heat transfer to evaluate the adequacy of using the optically thin model. Several calculations were performed with and without radiative transfer of radiating gases and/or soot to investigate their respective effects on the computed soot field and flame structure. Radiative heat transfer by both radiating gases and soot were found to be important in this relatively heavily sooting flame studied. Results of the optically thin radiation model are in good agreement with those obtained using the wide band model except for the flame temperature near the flame tip.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4073(01)00205-9},
	author = {Liu, Fengshan and Guo, Hongsheng and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Applied Combustion Diagnostics},
	year = {2002},
	publisher = {Taylor and Francis},
	address = {New York},
	author = {Kohse-H{\"o}inghaus, K. and Jeffries, J. B.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Concurrent quantitative laser-induced incandescence and SMPS measurements of EGR effects on particulate emissions form a TDI diesel engine},
	journal = {SAE Technical Paper Series 2002-01-2715},
	year = {2002},
	note = {Soot I},
	author = {Smallwood, Gregory J. and Daniel J. Clavel and Daniel Gareau and Robert A. Sawchuk and Snelling, David R. and Peter O. Witze and Boman Axelsson and William D. Bachalo and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Concurrent Quantitative Laser-Induced Incandescence and SMPS Measurements of EGR Effects on Particulate Emissions from a TDI Diesel Engine},
	year = {2002},
	institution = {SAE},
	abstract = {A comparison of scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS)
and laser-induced incandescence (LII) measurements of
diesel particulate matter (PM) was performed. The results
reveal the significance of the aggregate nature of
diesel PM on interpretation of size and volume fraction
measurements obtained with an SMPS, and the accuracy
of primary particle size measurements by LII. Volume
fraction calculations based on the mobility diameter
measured by the SMPS substantially over-predict the
space-filling volume fraction of the PM. Correction algorithms
for the SMPS measurements, to account for the
fractal nature of the aggregate morphology, result in a
substantial reduction in the reported volume. The behavior
of the particulate volume fraction, mean and standard
deviation of the mobility diameter, and primary particle
size are studied as a function of the EGR for a
range of steady-state engine speeds and loads for a turbocharged
direct-injection diesel engine. Both the
SMPS and LII techniques demonstrate good repeatability
and consistency with each other. Increasing the EGR
results in a sharp rise in the volume fraction of particulates
for all engine speeds and loads. At all speed and
load conditions the primary particle size decreases with
increasing EGR.},
	isbn = {2002-01-2715},
	url = {http://www.sae.org/servlets/productDetail?PROD_TYP=PAPER\&PROD_CD=2002-01-2715},
	author = {Smallwood, Gregory J. and Daniel J. Clavel and Daniel Gareau and Robert A. Sawchuk and Snelling, David R. and Peter O. Witze and Boman Axelsson and William D. Bachalo and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser Induced Incandescence for Soot Concentration Measurements in Turbine Engine Exhausts},
	year = {2002},
	institution = {AIAA},
	isbn = {2002-0828},
	author = {T. P. Jenkins and J. L. Bartholomew and P. A. DeBarber and P. Yang and J. M. Seitzman and R. P. Howard}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence and Raman measurements in sooting methane and ethylene flames},
	journal = {Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics},
	volume = {4},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {2063-2071},
	keywords = {flame, LII, Raman, soot},
	author = {Schittkowski, T. and Mewes, B. and Br{\"u}ggemann, D.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Lung Cancer, Cardiopulmonary Mortality, and Long-term Exposure to Fine Particulate Air Pollution},
	journal = {Journal of the American Medical Association},
	volume = {287},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {1132-1141},
	abstract = {CONTEXT: Associations have been found between day-to-day particulate air pollution and increased risk of various adverse health outcomes, including cardiopulmonary mortality. However, studies of health effects of long-term particulate air pollution have been less conclusive. OBJECTIVE: To assess the relationship between long-term exposure to fine particulate air pollution and all-cause, lung cancer, and cardiopulmonary mortality. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Vital status and cause of death data were collected by the American Cancer Society as part of the Cancer Prevention II study, an ongoing prospective mortality study, which enrolled approximately 1.2 million adults in 1982. Participants completed a questionnaire detailing individual risk factor data (age, sex, race, weight, height, smoking history, education, marital status, diet, alcohol consumption, and occupational exposures). The risk factor data for approximately 500 000 adults were linked with air pollution data for metropolitan areas throughout the United States and combined with vital status and cause of death data through December 31, 1998. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: All-cause, lung cancer, and cardiopulmonary mortality. RESULTS: Fine particulate and sulfur oxide--related pollution were associated with all-cause, lung cancer, and cardiopulmonary mortality. Each 10-microg/m(3) elevation in fine particulate air pollution was associated with approximately a 4\%, 6\%, and 8\% increased risk of all-cause, cardiopulmonary, and lung cancer mortality, respectively. Measures of coarse particle fraction and total suspended particles were not consistently associated with mortality. CONCLUSION: Long-term exposure to combustion-related fine particulate air pollution is an important environmental risk factor for cardiopulmonary and lung cancer mortality.},
	url = {http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/287/9/1132},
	author = {Arden, C. and Burnett, R. T. and Thun, M. J. and Calle, E. E. and Krewski, D. and Ito, K. and Thurston, G. D.}
}
@book {,
	title = {Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Soot Diagnostics by Optical Techniques},
	series = {Applied Combustion Diagnostics},
	year = {2002},
	publisher = {Taylor and Francis},
	organization = {Taylor and Francis},
	address = {New York},
	author = {Leipertz, A. and Ossler, F. and M. Ald{\'e}n}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Quantitative measurements of the soot distribution in a realistic common rail D.I. Diesel engine},
	booktitle = {11th International Symposium on Application of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics},
	year = {2002},
	address = {Lissabon},
	author = {A. E. Greis and G. Gr{\"u}nefeld and M. Becker and S. Pischinger}
}
@article {,
	title = {Quantitative three-dimensional imaging of soot volume fraction in turbulent non-premixed flames},
	journal = {Experiments in Fluids},
	volume = {33},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {265-269},
	abstract = {A three-dimensional (3-D) imaging system for studies of reactive and non-reactive flows is described. It can be used to reveal the topology of turbulent structures and to extract 3-D quantities, such as concentration gradients.  Measurements are performed using a high repetition rate laser and detector system in combination with a scanning mirror. In this study, the system is used for laser-induced incandescence measurements to obtain quantitative 3-D soot volume fraction distributions in both laminar and turbulent non-premixed flames. From the acquired data, iso-concentration surfaces are visualised and concentration gradients calculated.},
	author = {J. Hult and A. Omrane and J. Nygren and C. F. Kaminski and Boman Axelsson and R. Collin and Per-Erik Bengtsson and M. Ald{\'e}n}
}
@article {,
	title = {Real-Time Measurement of the Volatile Fraction of Diesel Particulate Matter Using Laser-Induced Desorption with Elastic Light Scattering (LIDELS)},
	year = {2002},
	institution = {SAE},
	abstract = {A new diagnostic technique is described that has the capability of making real-time, in situ measurements of the volatile fraction of diesel particulate matter (PM). LIDELS uses two laser pulses of comparable energy, separated in time by an interval sufficiently short to freeze the flow field, to measure the change in PM volume caused by laser-induced desorption of the volatile fraction. The first laser pulse produces elastic light scattering (ELS) that gives the volume of the total PM, and also deposits the energy to desorb the volatiles. ELS from the second pulse gives the volume of the remaining solid portion of the PM, and the ratio of these two measurements is the quantitative solid volume fraction. Calibration is required for the individual total PM and solid fraction to be quantitative. Applicability of the technique is demonstrated for load and EGR sweeps for a turbocharged, direct-injection diesel engine.},
	isbn = {2002-01-1685},
	url = {http://www.sae.org/servlets/productDetail?PROD_TYP=PAPER\&PROD_CD=2002-01-1685},
	author = {Peter O. Witze}
}
@article {,
	title = {Spectrally Resolved Measurement of Flame Radiation to Determine Soot Temperature and Concentration},
	journal = {AIAA Journal},
	volume = {40},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {1789-1795},
	abstract = {A multiwavelength flame emission technique is developed for high spatial resolution determination of soot temperature and soot volume fraction in axisymmetric laminar diffusion flames. Horizontal scans of line-integrated spectra are collected over a spectral range of 500-945 nm. Inversion of these data through one-dimensional tomography using a three-point Abel inversion yields radial distributions of the soot radiation from which temperature profiles are extracted. From an absolute calibration of the flame emission and by use of these temperature data, absorption coefficients are calculated, which are directly proportional to the soot volume fractions. The important optical parameters are discussed. It is shown that a uniform sampling cross section through the flame must be maintained and that variations in sampling area produce inconsistencies between measurements and theory, which cannot be interpreted as spatial averaging of the property field. The variations in cross-sectional sampling area have the largest influence on the measurements at the edges of the flame, where the highest resolution is required. Emission attenuation by soot has been shown to have minor influence on the soot temperature and soot volume fraction for the soot loading of the axisymmetric flame tested. An emission correction scheme is outlined, which could be used for more heavily sooting flames. For a refractive index absorption function E(m) = Im[(m2 - 1)(m2 + 2)] that is independent of wavelength, the soot temperatures and soot volume fractions measured with this technique are in excellent agreement with data obtained by coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering nitrogen thermometry and two-dimensional soot extinction in the same ethylene coflow diffusion flame. The agreement of the results suggests a limit of the slope of the spectral response of E(m) to be between 0 and 20\% over the spectral range examined.},
	url = {http://www.aiaa.org/content.cfm?pageid=318},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Kevin A. Thomson and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L. and Elizabeth J. Weckman and Roydon A. Fraser}
}
@article {,
	title = {In-cylinder sizing of diesel particles by time-resolved laser-induced incandescence (TR-LII)},
	journal = {Proceedings of the Combustion Institute},
	volume = {29},
	number = {2},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {2775-2782},
	keywords = {diesel, LII, particle size, soot, time resolved LII},
	author = {Kock, Boris F. and Eckhardt, Th. and Roth, Paul}
}
@article {,
	title = {Progress in characterization of soot formation by optical techniques},
	journal = {Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics},
	volume = {4},
	year = {2002},
	pages = {3780-3793},
	keywords = {LII, particle size, primary particle, size distribution, soot},
	author = {Henning Bockhorn and Geitlinger, H. and Jungfleisch, B. and Lehre, Th. and Sch{\~A}{\textparagraph}n, A. and Streibel, Th. and Rainer Suntz}
}
@conference {,
	title = {A Calibration-Independent Technique of Measuring Soot by Laser-Induced Incandescence Using Absolute Light Intensity},
	booktitle = {The Second Joint Meeting of the US Sections of the Combustion Institute},
	year = {2001},
	month = {March 25-28},
	address = {Oakland, California},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L. and Liu, Fengshan and William D. Bachalo}
}
@article {,
	title = {Clouds over Soot Evaporation: Errors in Modeling Laser-Induced Incandescence of Soot},
	journal = {Journal of Heat Transfer},
	volume = {123},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {814-818},
	abstract = {The ambiguity and incorrect treatment of the evaporation term among some LII models in the literature are discussed. This study does not suggest that the correct formulation presented for the evaporation model is adequate, or that it reflects the soot evaporation process under intense evaporation. The emphasis is that the current evaporation model must be used correctly in the evaluation of the LII model against experimental data. Numerical results are presented to demonstrate the significance of the molecular weight associated with the heat of evaporation and the thermal velocity of carbon vapor on the results obtained with the evaporation model. Other errors frequently repeated in the literature are also identified.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1370507},
	author = {Smallwood, Gregory J. and Snelling, David R. and Liu, Fengshan and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Clouds over soot evaporation: Errors in modeling laser-induced incandescence of soot},
	journal = {Journal of Heat Transfer},
	volume = {123},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {814-818},
	keywords = {laser heating, LII model, soot},
	author = {Smallwood, Gregory J. and Snelling, David R. and Liu, Fengshan and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Diagnostics for the Measurement of Particulate Matter Emissions from Reciprocating Engines},
	booktitle = {The Fifth International Symposium on Diagnostics and Modeling of Combustion in Internal Combustion Engines (COMODIA)},
	year = {2001},
	address = {Nagoya},
	author = {Peter O. Witze}
}
@article {,
	title = {Extinction and Scattering Properties of Soot Emitted from Buoyant Turbulent Diffusion Flames},
	journal = {Journal of Heat Transfer},
	volume = {123},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {331-339},
	abstract = {Extinction and scattering properties at wavelengths of 250{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}5200 nm were studied for soot emitted from buoyant turbulent diffusion flames in the long residence time regime where soot properties are independent of position in the overfire region and characteristic flame residence times. Flames burning in still air and fueled with gas (acetylene, ethylene, propane, and propylene) and liquid (benzene, toluene, cyclohexane, and n-heptane) hydrocarbon fuels were considered. Measured scattering patterns and ratios of total scattering/absorption cross sections were in good agreement with predictions based on the Rayleigh-Debye-Gans (RDG) scattering approximation in the visible. Measured depolarization ratios were roughly correlated by primary particle size parameter, suggesting potential for completing RDG methodology needed to make soot scattering predictions as well as providing a nonintrusive way to measure primary soot particle diameters. Measurements of dimensionless extinction coefficients were in good agreement with earlier measurements for similar soot populations and were independent of fuel type and wavelength except for reduced values as the near ultraviolet was approached. The ratios of the scattering/absorption refractive index functions were independent of fuel type within experimental uncertainties and were in good agreement with earlier measurements. The refractive index function for absorption was similarly independent of fuel type but was larger than earlier reflectometry measurements in the infrared. Ratios of total scattering/absorption cross sections were relatively large in the visible and near infrared, with maximum values as large as 0.9 and with values as large as 0.2 at 2000 nm, suggesting greater potential for scattering from soot particles to affect flame radiation properties than previously thought.},
	keywords = {extinction, flame, index of refraction, optical emission, Scattering, soot},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1350823},
	author = {Krishnan, S. S. and Lin, K.-C. and Faeth, G. M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Infrared Characterization of Particulate and Pollutant Emissions from Gas Turbine Combustors},
	year = {2001},
	institution = {AIAA},
	isbn = {2001-0789},
	author = {M. G. Allen and B. L. Upschulte and D. M. Sonnenfroh and W. T. Rawlins and C. Gmachl and F. Capasso and A. Hutchinson and D. Sivco and A. Cho}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence for soot particle size and volume fraction measurements using on-line extinction calibration},
	journal = {Applied Physics B},
	volume = {72},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {367{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}372},
	abstract = {A novel technique for two-dimensional measurements
of soot volume fraction and particle size has been developed.
It is based on a combined measurement of extinction
and laser-induced incandescence using Nd:YAG laser wavelengths
of 532 nm and 1064 nm. A low-energy laser pulse at
532 nm was used for extinction measurements and was followed
by a more intense pulse at 1064 nm, delayed by 15 ns,
for LII measurements. The 532-nm beam was split into a signal
beam passing the flame and a reference beam, both of
which were directed to a dye cell. The resulting fluorescence
signals, from which the extinctionwas deduced, together with
the LII signal, were registered on a single CCD detector.
Thus the two-dimensional LII image could be converted to
a soot volume fraction map through a calibration procedure
during the same laser shot. The soot particle sizes were evaluated
from the ratio of the temporal LII signals at two gate
time positions. The uncertainty in the particle sizing arose
mainly from the low signal for small particles at long gate
times and the uncertainty in the flame temperature. The technique
was applied to a well-characterized premixed flat flame,
the soot properties of which had been previously thoroughly
investigated.},
	keywords = {extinction, flame, LII, particle size, soot, volume fraction},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s003400100504},
	author = {Boman Axelsson and R. Collin and Per-Erik Bengtsson}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Laser-Induced Incandescence Measurements of Particulate Matter Emissions in the Exhaust of a Diesel Engine},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium on Diagnostics and Modeling of Combustion in Internal Combustion Engines (COMODIA)},
	year = {2001},
	address = {Nagoya},
	author = {Smallwood, Gregory J. and Snelling, David R. and W. Stuart Neill and Liu, Fengshan and William D. Bachalo and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Method and apparatus for applying laser induced incandescence for the determination of particulate measurements},
	year = {2001},
	address = {USA},
	abstract = {The present invention relates to a method and apparatus for applying laser induced incandescence (LII) to determine a primary particle size of submicron sized particles. The present invention has found that in addition to volume fraction information, particle size can be determined using LII due to the fact that transient cooling is dependent on the diameter of the particle. The ratio of a prompt and a second time integrated measurement from the same laser pulse has been found to be a function of the particle size. A modeling process involves a solution of the differential equations describing the heat/energy transfer of the particle and surrounding gas, including parameters to describe vaporization, heat transfer to the medium, particle heating etc. The solution gives temperature and diameter values for the particles over time. These values are then converted to radiation values using Planck{\textquoteright}s equation. Thus the technique in accordance with the invention is able to provide a more accurate particle measurement than previous LII techniques, particularly where time averaging is not possible and size measurements must be obtained from a single laser pulse. Simultaneously a particle volume fraction can be obtained in accordance with the invention. Calibration is needed to obtain a quantified volume fraction measurement. In a further embodiment of the present invention, a technique for providing absolute intensity calibration is included in the method.},
	isbn = {6,181,419},
	url = {http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1\&Sect2=HITOFF\&d=PALL\&p=1\&u=\%2Fnetahtml\%2FPTO\%2Fsrchnum.htm\&r=1\&f=G\&l=50\&s1=6181419.PN.\&OS=PN/6181419\&RS=PN/6181419},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Signature Size Distributions for Diesel and Gasoline Engine Particulate Matter},
	journal = {Journal of Aerosol Science},
	volume = {32},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {749-764},
	author = {Harris, S. J. and Maricq, M. M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Strong Radiative Heating Due to the Mixing State of Black Carbon in Atmospheric Aerosols},
	journal = {Nature},
	volume = {409},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {695-697},
	abstract = {Aerosols affect the Earth{\textquoteright}s temperature and climate by altering the radiative properties of the atmosphere. A large positive component of this radiative forcing from aerosols is due to black carbon{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblright}soot{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblright}that is released from the burning of fossil fuel and biomass, and, to a lesser extent, natural fires, but the exact forcing is affected by how black carbon is mixed with other aerosol constituents. From studies of aerosol radiative forcing, it is known that black carbon can exist in one of several possible mixing states; distinct from other aerosol particles (externally mixed1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) or incorporated within them (internally mixed1, 3, 7), or a black-carbon core could be surrounded by a well mixed shell7. But so far it has been assumed that aerosols exist predominantly as an external mixture. Here I simulate the evolution of the chemical composition of aerosols, finding that the mixing state and direct forcing of the black-carbon component approach those of an internal mixture, largely due to coagulation and growth of aerosol particles. This finding implies a higher positive forcing from black carbon than previously thought, suggesting that the warming effect from black carbon may nearly balance the net cooling effect of other anthropogenic aerosol constituents. The magnitude of the direct radiative forcing from black carbon itself exceeds that due to CH4, suggesting that black carbon may be the second most important component of global warming after CO2 in terms of direct forcing.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35055518},
	author = {Jacobson, Mark Z.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Time-Resolved Laser-Induced Incandescence and Laser Elastic Scattering Measurements in a Propane Diffusion Flame},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {40},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {2443-2452},
	abstract = {Laser-induced incandescence (LII) and laser elastic-scattering measurements have been obtained with subnanosecond time resolution from a propane diffusion flame. Results show that the peak and time integrated values of the LII signal increase with increasing laser fluence to maxima at the time of the onset of significant vaporization, beyond which they both decrease rapidly with further increases in fluence. This latter behavior for the time-integrated value is known to be characteristic for a laser beam with a rectangular spatial profile and is attributed to soot mass loss from vaporization. However, there is no apparent explanation for the corresponding large decrease in the peak value. Analysis shows that the peak value occurs at the time in the laser pulse when the time-integrated fluence reaches approximately 0.2 J/cm2 and that the magnitude of the peak value is strongly dependent on the rate of energy deposition. One possible explanation for this behavior is that, at high laser fluences, a cascade ionization phenomenon leads to the formation of an absorptive plasma that strongly perturbs the LII process.},
	url = {http://ao.osa.org/abstract.cfm?id=64307},
	author = {Peter O. Witze and Hochgreb, S. and David Kayes and Michelsen, H. A. and Shaddix, Christopher R.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Transient Particulate Matter Measurements from the Exhaust of a Direct Injection Spark Ignition Automobile},
	year = {2001},
	institution = {SAE},
	abstract = {ABSTRACT
Diesel and gasoline engines face tightening particulate
matter emissions regulations due to the environmental
and health effects attributed to these emissions. There
is increasing demand for measuring not only the
concentration, but also the size distribution of the
particulates. Laser-induced incandescence has emerged
as a promising technique for measuring spatially and
temporally resolved soot volume fraction and size.
Laser-induced incandescence has orders of magnitude
more sensitivity than the gravimetric technique, and thus
offers the promise of real-time measurements and adds
information on the increasingly desirable size and
morphology information. Quantitative LII is shown to
provide a sensitive, precise, and repeatable measure of
the soot concentration over a wide measurement range.
The current research determined the tailpipe particulate
emissions characteristics from a DISI (direct injection
spark ignition) vehicle, including identifying the relative
contributions of various engine modes to the total
particulate emissions. The volume concentration
measurements were obtained in the undilute exhaust
with laser-induced incandescence (LII). Particulate
measurements were also performed with ELPI
instrumentation, sampling from a mini-diluter.
Gravimetric filter sampling was performed to measure
mass emission rate, organic/elemental carbon, and
sulphates/nitrates/trace elements.
The LII technique was demonstrated to be capable of
real-time particulate matter measurements over all
vehicle transient conditions. The wide measurement
range and lower detection limit of LII make it a potentially
preferred standard instrument for soot measurements.},
	isbn = {2001-01-3581},
	url = {http://www.sae.org/servlets/productDetail?PROD_TYP=PAPER\&PROD_CD=2001-01-3581},
	author = {Smallwood, Gregory J. and Snelling, David R. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L. and Daniel J. Clavel and Daniel Gareau and Robert A. Sawchuk and Graham, L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {The effect of fuel-vapor concentration on the process of initial combustion and soot formation in a DI Diesel engine using LII and LIEF},
	journal = {SAE Technical Paper Series No. 2001-01-1255},
	year = {2001},
	publisher = {Society of Automotive Engineers},
	address = {Warrendale, PA},
	author = {D. Choi and M. Iwamuro and Y. Shima and J. Senda and H. Fujimoto}
}
@article {,
	title = {Light Scattering by Fractal Aggregates: A Review},
	journal = {Aerosol Science and Technology},
	volume = {35},
	number = {2},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {648-687},
	author = {C. M. Sorensen}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot Pyrometry using Modulated Absorption/Emission},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {126},
	year = {2001},
	pages = {1669-1679},
	author = {T. P. Jenkins and Hanson, R. K.}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Soot Volume Fraction Characterization Using the Laser-Induced Incandescence Detection Method},
	booktitle = {Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Applications of Laser Techniques to Fluid Mechanics},
	year = {2000},
	month = {July 10-13},
	address = {Lisbon},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L. and William D. Bachalo and Sankar, S.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Absolute intensity measurements in laser induced incandescence},
	year = {2000},
	address = {USA},
	abstract = {The invention relates to a method and an apparatus for the determination of particle volume fractions with laser induced incandescence (LII) using absolute light intensity measurements. This requires a knowledge of the particle temperature either from a numerical model of particulate heating or experimental observation of the particulate temperature. Further, by using a known particle temperature a particle volume fraction is calculated. This avoids the need for a calibration in a source of particulates with a known particle volume fraction or particle concentration. The sensitivity of the detection system is determined by calibrating an extended source of known radiance and then this sensitivity is used to interpret measured LII signals. This results in a calibration independent method and apparatus for measuring particle volume fraction or particle concentrations. A modeling process involves a solution of the differential equations describing the heat/energy transfer of the particle and surrounding gas, including parameters to describe vaporization, heat transfer to the medium, particle heating etc. The solution gives temperature and diameter values for the particles over time. These values are then converted to radiation values using Planck{\textquoteright}s equation.},
	isbn = {6,154,277},
	url = {http://patft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1\&Sect2=HITOFF\&d=PALL\&p=1\&u=\%2Fnetahtml\%2FPTO\%2Fsrchnum.htm\&r=1\&f=G\&l=50\&s1=6154277.PN.\&OS=PN/6154277\&RS=PN/6154277},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Application of a New Soot Sensor for Exhaust Emission Control Based on Time Resolved Laser Induced Incandescence (TIRE-LII)},
	year = {2000},
	institution = {SAE},
	isbn = {2000-01-2864},
	author = {Schraml, S. and Heimg{\"a}rtner , C. and Will, S. and Leipertz, A. and Hemm, A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Evaluation of the nanoscale heat and mass transfer model of the laser-induced incandescence process for excitation intensity prediction},
	journal = {Proceedings of the 34th National Heat Transfer Conference},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {NHTC2000-12132},
	address = {Pittsburgh, PA},
	keywords = {laser heating, LII model, soot},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Liu, Fengshan and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Evaluation of the Nanoscale Heat and Mass Transfer Model of the Laser-Induced Incandescence: Prediction of the Excitation Intensity},
	year = {2000},
	institution = {Thirty Fourth National Heat Transfer Conference},
	isbn = {NHTC2000-12132},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Liu, Fengshan and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Fractal-like aggregates: Relation between morphology and physical properties},
	journal = {Journal of Colloid and Interface Science},
	volume = {229},
	number = {1},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {261-273},
	abstract = {A number of modern technological applications require a detailed calculation of the physical properties of aggregated aerosol particles. For example, in probing soot aerosols by the method called laser-induced incandescence (LII), the soot clusters are suddenly heated by a short, powerful laser pulse and then cool down to the temperature of the carrier gas. LII sizing is based on rigorous calculation of the soot aggregate heat-up and cooling and involves prediction of laser light absorption and energy and mass transfer between aggregated particles and the ambient gas. This paper describes results of numerical simulations of the mass or energy transfer between the gas and fractal-like aggregates of N spherical particles in either the free-molecular or continuum regime, as well as the light scattering properties of random fractal-like aggregates, based on Rayleigh-Debye-Gans (RDG) theory. The aggregate geometries are generated numerically using specially developed algorithms allowing "tuning" of the fractal dimension and prefactor values. Our results are presented in the form of easily applicable scaling laws, with special attention paid to relations between the aggregate gyration radius and the effective radius describing various transport processes between the aggregates and the carrier gas. (C) 2000 Academic Press.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jcis.2000.7027},
	author = {Filippov, A. V. and Zurita, M. and Rosner, D. E.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Global Warming in the Twenty-First Century: An Alternative Scenario},
	journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences},
	volume = {97},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {9875-9880},
	abstract = {A common view is that the current global warming rate will continue or accelerate. But we argue that rapid warming in recent decades has been driven mainly by non-CO2 greenhouse gases (GHGs), such as chlorofluorocarbons, CH4, and N2O, not by the products of fossil fuel burning, CO2 and aerosols, the positive and negative climate forcings of which are partially offsetting. The growth rate of non-CO2 GHGs has declined in the past decade. If sources of CH4 and O3 precursors were reduced in the future, the change in climate forcing by non-CO2 GHGs in the next 50 years could be near zero. Combined with a reduction of black carbon emissions and plausible success in slowing CO2 emissions, this reduction of non-CO2 GHGs could lead to a decline in the rate of global warming, reducing the danger of dramatic climate change. Such a focus on air pollution has practical benefits that unite the interests of developed and developing countries. However, assessment of ongoing and future climate change requires composition-specific long-term global monitoring of aerosol properties.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.170278997},
	author = {Hansen, James and Sato, Makiko and Reto, Ruedy and Lacis, Andrew and Oinas, Valdar}
}
@article {,
	title = {In-Situ Real-Time Characterization of Particulate Emissions from a Diesel Engine Exhaust by Laser-Induced Incandescence},
	year = {2000},
	institution = {SAE},
	abstract = {Diesel engines face tightening particulate matter emissions regulations due to the environmental and health effects attributed to these emissions.  There is increasing demand for measuring not only the concentration, but also the size distribution of the particulates.  Laser-induced incandescence has emerged as a promising technique for measuring spatially and temporally resolved particulate volume fraction and size. Laser-induced incandescence has orders of magnitude more sensitivity than the gravimetric technique, and thus offers the promise of real-time measurements and adds the increasingly desirable size and morphology information.
The usefulness of LII as a diagnostic instrument for the precise measurement of particulate concentration and primary particle size has been demonstrated.  Measurements have been performed in the exhaust of a single cylinder DI research diesel engine.  Simultaneous gravimetric filter measurements were made for direct comparison with the LII technique.  Quantitative LII is shown to provide a sensitive, precise, and repeatable measure of the particulate concentration over a wide dynamic range.  LII and gravimetric measurements are shown to correlate well over a wide range of operating conditions.  A novel method for determining the primary particle size is shown to be precise enough to distinguish particle sizes for different engine operating conditions, and subsequently the number density of primary particles was determined.  LII has also been shown to be sensitive in differentiating the PM performance between four different fuels. 
The LII technique is capable of real-time particulate matter measurements over any engine transient operation. The wide dynamic range and lower detection limit of LII make it a potentially preferred standard instrument for particulate matter measurements.},
	isbn = {2000-01-1994},
	url = {http://www.sae.org/servlets/productDetail?PROD_TYP=PAPER\&PROD_CD=2000-01-1994},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Robert A. Sawchuk and W. Stuart Neill and Daniel Gareau and Daniel J. Clavel and Wallace L. Chippior and Liu, Fengshan and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L. and William D. Bachalo}
}
@article {,
	title = {Nonintrusive Optical Measurements of Aircraft Engine Exhaust Emissions and Comparison with Standard Intrusive Techniques},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {39},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {441-454},
	author = {K. Sch{\"a}fer and J. Heland and D. H. Lister and C. W. Wilson and R. J. Howes and R. S. Falk and E. Lindermeir and M. Birk and G. Wagner and P. Haschberger}
}
@article {,
	title = {Optical properties in the visible of overfire soot in large buoyant turbulent diffusion flames},
	journal = {Journal of Heat Transfer Transactions of the ASME},
	volume = {122},
	number = {3},
	year = {2000},
	note = {Univ Michigan, Dept Aerosp Engn, Ann Arbor, MI 48109 USA},
	pages = {517-524},
	abstract = {Nonintrusive measurements of the optical properties of soot at visible wavelengths (351.2-800.0 nm) were completed for soot in the overfire region of large (2-7 kW) buoyant turbulent diffusion flames burning in still air at standard temperature and pressure, where soot properties are independent of position and characteristic flame residence time for a particular fuel. Soot from flames fueled with gaseous (acetylene, ethylene, propylene, and butadiene) and liquid (benzene, cyclohexane, toluene, and n-heptane) hydrocarbon fuels were studied. Scattering and extinction measurements were interpreted to find soot optical properties using the Rayleigh-Debye-Gans/polydisperse-fractal-aggregate theory after establishing that this theory provided good predictions of scattering patterns over the present test range. Effects of fuel type on soot optical properties were comparable to experimental uncertainties. Dimensionless extinction coefficients were relatively independent of wavelength for wavelengths of 400-800 nm and yielded a mean value of 8.4 in good agreement with earlier measurements. Present measurements of the refractive index function for absorption, E(m), were in good agreement with earlier independent measurements of Dalzell and Sarofim and Stagg and Charalampopoulos present values of the refractive index function for scattering, F(m), however, only agreed with these earlier measurements for wavelengths of 400-500 nm but otherwise increased with increasing wavelength more rapidly than the rest. The comparison between present and earlier measurements of the real and imaginary parts of the complex refractive index was similar to E(m) and F(m).},
	keywords = {absorption, combustion systems, extinction coefficients, light, morphology, particles, radiation, Refractive indexes, Scattering},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1115/1.1288025},
	author = {Krishnan, S. S. and Lin, K. C. and Faeth, G. M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Performance Characteristics of TIRE-LII Soot Diagnostics in Exhaust Gases of Diesel Engines},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {1935-1942},
	institution = {SAE},
	isbn = {2000-01-2002},
	author = {Schraml, S. and Will, S. and Leipertz, A. and Zens, T. and D{\textquoteright}Alfonso, N.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Real-Time Measurement of Trace Metals on Fine Particles by Laser-Induced Plasma Techniques},
	journal = {Fuel Processing Technology},
	volume = {65/66},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {219-229},
	author = {Cheng, M.-D.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot Temperature Measurements and Implications for Time-Resolved Laser-Induced Incandescence (TIRE-LII)},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {120},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {439-450},
	keywords = {laser heating, LII experiment, LII model, soot},
	author = {Schraml, S. and Dankers, S. and Bader, K. and Will, S. and Leipertz, A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Energy transfer between an aerosol particle and gas at high temperature ratios in the Knudsen transition regime},
	journal = {International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer},
	volume = {43},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {127-138},
	keywords = {conduction, continuum regime, Knudsen regime, transition regime},
	author = {Filippov, A. V. and Rosner, D. E.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence for soot particle size measurements in premixed flat flames},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {39},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {3683-3690},
	keywords = {LII experiment, particle sizing, soot},
	author = {Boman Axelsson and R. Collin and Per-Erik Bengtsson}
}
@article {,
	title = {Time resolved laser induced incandescence for soot and cenospheres measurements in oil flames},
	journal = {Combustion Science and Technology},
	volume = {153},
	year = {2000},
	pages = {51-63},
	keywords = {particle size, soot, time resolved LII, volume fraction},
	author = {Allouis, C. and D{\textquoteright}Alessio, A. and Noviello, C. and Beretta, F.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Particulate Matter Measurements in a Diesel Engine Exhaust by Laser-Induced Incandescence and the Standard Gravimetric Procedure},
	year = {1999},
	institution = {SAE},
	abstract = {Laser-induced incandescence has emerged as a promising technique for measuring spatially and temporally resolved
particulate volume fraction and size. Laser-induced incandescence has orders of magnitude more sensitivity than the
gravimetric technique, and thus offers the promise of real-time measurements and adds the increasingly desirable size
and morphology information. Particulate matter emissions have been measured by laser-induced incandescence and the
standard gravimetric procedure in a mini dilution tunnel connected to the exhaust of a single-cylinder diesel engine. The
engine used in this study incorporates features of contemporary medium- to heavy-duty diesel engines and is tuned to
meet the U.S. EPA 1994 emission standards. The engine experiments have been run using the AVL 8-mode steady-state
simulation of the U.S. EPA heavy-duty transient test procedure. Results of the measurements using the two methods are
compared and the suitability of the laser-induced incandescence for particulate mass measurements in diesel exhaust is
demonstrated.},
	isbn = {1999-01-3653},
	url = {http://www.sae.org/servlets/productDetail?PROD_TYP=PAPER\&PROD_CD=1999-01-3653},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Robert A. Sawchuk and W. Stuart Neill and Daniel Gareau and Wallace L. Chippior and Liu, Fengshan and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L. and William D. Bachalo}
}
@article {,
	title = {A recipe for image characterization of fractal-like aggregates},
	journal = {Journal of Aerosol Science},
	volume = {30},
	number = {10},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {1379-1389},
	abstract = {In the present paper a simple and straightforward recipe for characterizing the structural and fractal properties of aggregates from their projected images is presented. Starting from geometrical properties that are directly measured from the projected image-such as primary particle mean diameter, maximum projected length, projected area, and overlap coefficient-important three-dimensional properties including number of primary particles in an aggregate, radius of gyration, aggregate surface, or fractal dimensions, D-f and k(g), can be inferred. Expressions proposed in the recipe to relate three dimensional with projected properties were obtained from an extensive investigation of the structure of numerically simulated cluster-cluster fractal-like aggregates. This involved the simulation of statistically significant populations of aggregates having appropriate fractal properties and prescribed numbers of primary particles per aggregate in order to characterize three-dimensional morphological properties of aggregates. Specific ranges of aggregate properties considered were as follows: number of primary particles per aggregate up to 512, fractal dimension, D-f approximate to 1.78, overlap coefficient in the range 0-0.33 and fractal pre factor between 1.5 and 3.1. (C) 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-8502(99)00026-9},
	author = {Brasil, A. M. and Farias, T. L. and Carvalho, M. G.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Simultaneous Measurement of Soot Mass Concentration and Primary Particle Size in the Exhaust of a DI Diesel Engine by Time-Resolved Laser-Induced Incandescence (TIRE-LII)},
	year = {1999},
	institution = {SAE},
	isbn = {1999-01-0146},
	author = {Schraml, S. and Will, S. and Leipertz, A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Trace Metal Detection by Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy},
	journal = {Applied Spectroscopy},
	volume = {53},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {1226-1236},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L. and Ticich, T. M. and West, J. R.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Two-Dimensional Imaging of Soot Volume Fraction in Laminar Diffusion Flames},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {38},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {2478-2485},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Kevin A. Thomson and Smallwood, Gregory J. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Coupled dipole calculation of extinction coefficient and polarization ratio for smoke agglomerates},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {119},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {56-68},
	author = {Mulholland, G. W. and Mountain, R. D.}
}
@article {,
	title = {In situ characterization of ultrafine particles by laser-induced incandescence: Sizing and particle structure determination},
	journal = {Journal of Aerosol Science},
	volume = {30},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {71-87},
	keywords = {laser heating, LII experiment, LII model, soot},
	author = {Filippov, A. V. and Markus, M. W. and Roth, Paul}
}
@article {,
	title = {Light Scattering for Particle Characterization},
	journal = {Progress in Energy and Combustion Science},
	volume = {25},
	number = {1},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {1-53},
	author = {A. R. Jones}
}
@article {,
	title = {LII Analysis of aggregate size distributions at high pressures},
	journal = {Journal of Aerosol Science},
	volume = {30},
	number = {Suppl. 1},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {S473-S474},
	author = {Filippov, A. V. and Rosner, D. E.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Pulsed laser heating of soot: Morphological changes},
	journal = {Carbon},
	volume = {37},
	year = {1999},
	pages = {231-239},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L. and Choi, M. Y.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Simultaneous measurement of soot mass concentration and primary particle size in the exhaust of a DI diesel engine by time-resolved laser-induced incandescence},
	journal = {SAE Technical Paper Series 1999-01-0146},
	year = {1999},
	keywords = {engine exhaust, laser heating, LII experiment, LII model, soot},
	author = {Schraml, S. and Will, S. and Leipertz, A.}
}
@book {,
	title = {Solid-State Laser Engineering},
	year = {1999},
	publisher = {Springer},
	organization = {Springer},
	edition = {5th Edition},
	address = {Berlin},
	author = {Koechner, W.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Characterization of Laser-Heated Soot Particles Using Optical Pyrometry},
	year = {1998},
	institution = {AIAA},
	isbn = {98-0159},
	author = {McManus, K. R. and Frank, J. H. and M. G. Allen and W. T. Rawlins}
}
@article {,
	title = {Engines and Nanoparticles:  A Review},
	journal = {Journal of Aerosol Science},
	volume = {29},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {575-588},
	abstract = {Most of the particle number emitted by engines is in the nanoparticle range, Dp<50 nm, while most of the mass is in the accumulation mode, 50 nm<Dp<1000 nm, range. Nanoparticles are typically hydrocarbons or sulfate and form by nucleation during dilution and cooling of the exhaust, while accumulation mode particles are mainly carbonaceous soot agglomerates formed directly by combustion. Emission standards on diesel engines have led to dramatic reductions in particle mass emitted. However, a new HEI study shows that some low-emission diesel engines emit much higher concentrations of nanoparticles than older designs and other low-emission designs. Many recent studies suggest that at similar mass concentrations; nanometer size particles are more dangerous than micron size particles. This has raised questions about whether nanoparticle (number based) emission standards should be imposed. Unlike mass, number is not conserved. It may change dramatically by nucleation and coagulation during dilution and sampling, making it very difficult to design a standard. Furthermore, if nanoparticles are a problem, spark ignition engines may also have to be controlled.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-8502(97)10037-4},
	author = {Kittelson, D. B.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Optical and Microscopy Investigations of Soot Structure Alterations by Laser-Induced Incandescence},
	journal = {Applied Physics B},
	volume = {67},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {115-123},
	abstract = {Understanding the physical process of LII is central to practical implementation and accurate theoretical modelling of LII. The LII dependence upon laser fluence is shown to depend upon detection conditions thereby not providing direct information about the soot temperature or structural changes. Transmission electron microscopy, used to investigate the morphological changes induced in the soot at different laser fluences, shows increasing graphitization of the soot with increasing laser fluence. For laser fluences above 0.45-0.05 J/cm2 at 1064 nm, vaporization/fragmentation of soot primary particles and aggregates occurs. Optical measurements are performed using a second laser pulse to probe the effects of these changes upon the LII signal. With the exception of very low fluences, the structural changes induced in the soot lead to a decreased LII intensity produced by the second laser pulse. These two-pulse experiments also show that these changes do not alter the LII signal on timescales less than 1 7s for fluences below the vaporization threshold.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s003400050483},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L. and Ticich, T. M. and Stephens, A. B.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Optical diagnostics for soot and temperature measurement in diesel engines},
	journal = {Progress in Energy and Combustion Science},
	volume = {24},
	number = {3},
	year = {1998},
	note = {Using Smart Source Parsing},
	pages = {221-255},
	abstract = {This paper reviews the optical techniques for in-cylinder combustion temperature measurement, particularly soot measurements in diesel engines. The review starts with the two-colour method for in-cylinder soot and combustion temperature measurement. The principle and implementation of the two-colour technique are described in detail. Both signal point and full-field temperature and soot measurements by the two-colour method are considered. In the second part, the soot diagnostics based on light scattering, especially the light extinction method for in-cylinder soot concentration measurements, are discussed. In the third part, optical techniques for spatially resolved two-dimensional measurements of soot particles in diesel engines are introduced. Since laser induced incandescence (LII) is a relatively new technique and is particularly suitable for the two-dimensional imaging of soot distribution, the operating principle and implementation of LII are discussed in detail. At the end of each part, examples are given to illustrate the understanding gained about diesel combustion as a result of the application of these optical techniques. This paper provides a comprehensive review for those who are interested in using optical diagnostics for in-cylinder soot and combustion temperature measurement in diesel engines. (C) 1998 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0360-1285(97)00033-6},
	author = {Zhao, H. and Ladommatos, N.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Performance Characteristics of Soot Primary Particle Size Measurements by Time-Resolved Laser-Induced Incandescence},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {37},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {5647-5658},
	keywords = {laser heating, LII experiment, LII model, soot},
	author = {Will, S. and Schraml, S. and Bader, K. and Leipertz, A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Calibration and Correction of Laser-Induced Incandescence for Soot Volume Fraction Measurements},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {112},
	number = {4},
	year = {1998},
	note = {Soot III},
	pages = {485-491},
	author = {Choi, M. Y. and K. A. Jensen}
}
@article {,
	title = {Characterization of laser-heated soot particles using optical pyrometry},
	journal = {Proceedings of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics},
	volume = {36},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {Paper no. AIAA 98-0159},
	keywords = {LII, soot},
	author = {McManus, K. R. and Frank, J. H. and M. G. Allen and W. T. Rawlins}
}
@article {,
	title = {The evolution of soot precursor particles in a diffusion flame},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {115},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {285-298},
	author = {Dobbins, R. A. and Fletcher, R. A. and Chang, H.-C.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot precursor carbonization: Visualization using LIF and LII and comparison using bright and drak field TEM},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {112},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {607-616},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Two-dimensional imaging of soot volume fractions, particle number densities and particle radii in laminar and turbulent diffusion flames},
	journal = {Proc. Combust. Inst.},
	volume = {27},
	year = {1998},
	pages = {1613-1621},
	author = {Geitlinger, H. and T. Streibel and Rainer Suntz and Henning Bockhorn}
}
@conference {,
	title = {Development and Application of Laser Induced Incandescence (LII) as a Diagnostic for Soot Particulate Measurements},
	booktitle = {AGARD 90th Symposium of the Propulsion and Energetics Panel on Advanced Non-Intrusive Instrumentation for Propulsion Engines},
	year = {1997},
	pages = {23.1-23.9},
	address = {Brussels, Belgium},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Campbell, I. G. and Medlock, J. E. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Development and Application of Laser-Induced Incandescence (LII) as a Diagnostic for Soot Particulate Measurements},
	journal = {Advanced Non-Intrusive Instrumentation for Propulsion Engines AGARD Conference Proceedings},
	volume = {598},
	year = {1997},
	pages = {23.21 {\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft} 23.29},
	author = {Snelling, David R. and Smallwood, Gregory J. and Campbell, I. G. and Medlock, J. E. and G{\"u}lder,  {\"O}mer L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot Volume Fraction and Particle Size Measurements with Laser-Induced Incandescence},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {36},
	year = {1997},
	pages = {709-717},
	abstract = {Laser-induced incandescence from soot was analyzed with a time-dependent, numerical model of particle heating and cooling processes that includes spatial and temporal intensity profiles associated with laser sheet illumination. For volume fraction measurements, substantial errors result primarily from changes in gas temperature and primary soot particle size. The errors can be reduced with the proper choice of detection wavelength, prompt gating, and high laser intensities. Two techniques for primary particle size measurements, based on ratios of laser-induced incandescence signals from a single laser pulse, were also examined. Compared with the ratio of two integration times, the newly proposed ratio of two detection wavelengths is better suited for simultaneous volume fraction and size measurements, because it is less temperature sensitive and produces stronger signals with, however, a lower sensitivity to size changes.},
	url = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6WS6-423F8WN-2Y1/2/e0e409fddfbf1a09b0171caac7966836},
	author = {Mewes, B. and J. M. Seitzman}
}
@article {,
	title = {Thermal Accommodation of a Gas on a Surface and Heat Transfer in CVD and PECVD Experiments},
	journal = {Journal of Physics D},
	volume = {30},
	year = {1997},
	pages = {499-509},
	abstract = {CARS measurements of gas temperature profiles performed at low
pressure (about 1 Torr) in a PECVD RF reactor and in a CVD reactor reveal the
thermal accommodation phenomenon between the gas and the surfaces. A
one-dimensional thermal model has been developed to calculate the temperature
profiles in the PECVD and CVD reactors and the results are compared with the
experimental measurements. In addition to the thermal conduction and
accommodation, the model takes into account the radiative exchange between the
surfaces. The influence of the pressure on the temperature jump between the gas
and the surfaces was investigated in the CVD reactor. Thermal accommodation
probabilities for five gas/surface couples have been determined: 0.07{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblleft}0.13 for
H2/stainless steel, 0.05+/-0.01 for H2/Si, 0.17+/-0.02 for H2/graphite, 0.38+/-0.03 for
N2/stainless steel and 0.26+/-0.02 for N2/graphite. In the PECVD reactor, the
influence of the electrical power deposited in the plasma on the temperature profile
between the electrodes was studied.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/30/4/001},
	author = {Leroy, O. and Perrin, J. and Jolly, J. and Pealat, M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {LIF-LII measurements in a turbulent gas-jet flame},
	journal = {Exp. Fluids},
	volume = {23},
	year = {1997},
	pages = {281-287},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Simultaneous laser-induced emission of soot and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons within a gas-jet diffusion flame},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {109},
	year = {1997},
	pages = {399-414},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L. and K. A. Jensen and Choi, M. Y.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Simultaneous measurements of soot volume fraction and particle size/ Microstructure in flames using a thermophoretic sampling technique},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {110},
	year = {1997},
	pages = {494-507},
	author = {{\"U}mit {\"O}zg{\"u}r K{\"o}yl{\"u} and McEnally, C. S. and Rosner, D. E. and Pfefferle, L. D.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot volume fraction and temperature measurements in laminar nonpremixed flames using thermocouples},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {109},
	year = {1997},
	pages = {701-720},
	author = {McEnally, C. S. and {\"U}mit {\"O}zg{\"u}r K{\"o}yl{\"u} and Pfefferle, L. D. and Rosner, D. E.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-Induced Incandescence Calibration via Gravimetric Sampling},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {105},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {462-470},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L. and Zhou, Z and Choi, M. Y.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence measurements of soot production in steady and flickering methane, propane, and ethylene diffusion flames},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {107},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {418-452},
	abstract = {Quantitative experimental measurements of soot concentrations and soot scattering are presented for a series of steady and flickering coflowing methane, propane, and ethylene flames burning at atmospheric pressure. Flickering diffusion flames exhibit a wide range of time-dependent, vortex-flame sheet interactions, and thus they serve as an important testing ground for assessing the applicability of chemical models derived from steady flames. Acoustic forcing of the fuel flow rate is used to phase lock the periodic flame flicker close to the natural flame flicker frequency caused by buoyancy-induced instabilities. For conditions in which flame clip-off occurs, the peak soot concentrations in the methane flickering flames are 5.5 to 6 times larger than measured in a steady flame burning with the same mean fuel flow rate, whereas the enhancement for the flickering propane and ethylene flames is only 35 to 60\%, independent of the flicker intensity. Soot concentration profiles and full Mie analysis of the soot volume fraction/scattering results reveal significant differences in the structure of the soot fields and in the roles of soot inception, growth, and oxidation for the different hydrocarbon fuels.

The soot concentrations have been measured using laser-induced incandescence (LII). Since this is the only technique currently available for making time- and spatially-resolved soot concentration measurements in time-varying flow fields, considerable effort has been devoted to developing LII for quantitative applications. Important considerations include (1) proper calibration measurements, (2) signal detection which minimizes interferences from C2 Swan-band emission and broadband molecular fluorescence, (3) correction for the laser beam focus/spatial averaging effect in line image measurements, and (4) correction for LII signal extinction within the flame.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-2180(96)00107-1},
	author = {Shaddix, Christopher R. and Smyth, Kermit C.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Quantitative Analysis of In Situ Optical Diagnostics for Inferring Particle/Aggregate Parameters in Flames: Implications for Soot Surface Growth and Total Emissivity},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {109},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {488-500},
	abstract = {An in situ particulate diagnostic/analysis technique is outlined based on the Rayleigh-Debye-Gans polydisperse fractal aggregate (RDG/PFA) scattering interpretation of absolute angular light scattering and extinction measurements. Using proper particle refractive index, the proposed data analysis method can quantitatively yield all aggregate parameters (particle volume fraction, fv, fractal dimension, Df, primary particle diameter, dp, particle number density, np, and aggregate size distribution, pdf(N)) without any prior knowledge about the particle-laden environment. The present optical diagnostic/interpretation technique was applied to two different soot-containing laminar and turbulent ethylene/air nonpremixed flames in order to assess its reliability. The aggregate interpretation of optical measurements yielded Df, dp, and pdf(N) that are in excellent agreement with ex situ thermophoretic sampling/transmission electron microscope (TS/TEM) observations within experimental uncertainties. However, volume-equivalent single particle models (Rayleigh/Mie) overestimated dp by about a factor of 3, causing an order of magnitude underestimation in np. Consequently, soot surface areas and growth rates were in error by a factor of 3, emphasizing that aggregation effects need to be taken into account when using optical diagnostics for a reliable understanding of soot formation/evolution mechanism in flames. The results also indicated that total soot emissivities were generally underestimated using Rayleigh analysis (up to 50\%), mainly due to the uncertainties in soot refractive indices at infrared wavelengths. This suggests that aggregate considerations may not be essential for reasonable radiation heat transfer predictions from luminous flames because of fortuitous error cancellation, resulting in typically a 10 to 30\% net effect.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0010-2180(96)00179-4},
	author = {{\"U}mit {\"O}zg{\"u}r K{\"o}yl{\"u}}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot mass concentration measurements in diesel engine exhaust using laser-induced incandescence},
	journal = {Aerosol Science and Technology},
	volume = {25},
	number = {1},
	year = {1996},
	note = {Caterpillar, Inc, Pontiac, IL, USA
Experimental},
	pages = {46-60},
	abstract = {Simultaneous measurements of laser-induced incandescence (LII) and elastic scattering from soot particles in diesel engine exhaust have been made. The LII signal scaled linearly with the mass concentration of the non-volatile particulate mass fraction over the entire range of engine operating loads. Over this range of conditions, the volume mean diameter of the soot particles varied from 0.07 to 0.11 mu m, but the size change did not appear to affect the signal response. The scattering response did not scale linearly with the mass concentration of soot. Mass concentrations of 0.2 mg/m3 were easily detectable, with even lower values possible. Additional techniques for determining the volatile fraction of particulate mass are described. (Author abstract). EiPLUS (c) 1996 Engineering Information Inc.},
	keywords = {*Soot, 804 Chemical Products Generally 521 Fuel Combustion and Flame Research 612.2 Diesel Engines 612.1.1 Internal Combustion Engine Components 744.8 Laser Beam Interactions, Diesel engines, Exhaust systems (engine), Laser beam effects, Parti, Scattering},
	author = {Case, Mark E. and Hofeldt, David L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Spectral extinction coefficients of soot aggregates from turbulent diffusion flames},
	journal = {Journal of Heat Transfer Transactions of the ASME},
	volume = {118},
	number = {2},
	year = {1996},
	note = {Univ michigan, dept aerosp engn, ann arbor, mi 48109, usa},
	pages = {415-421},
	abstract = {The spectral extinction coefficients of soot aggregates were studied in the fuel-lean (overfire) region of buoyant turbulent diffusion flames. Extinction measurements were carried out in the wavelength region of 0.2-5.2 mu m for flames fueled with acetylene, propylene, ethylene, and propane, burning in air. The present measurements were combined with earlier measurements of soot morphology and light scattering at 0.514 mu m in order to evaluate the spectral soot refractive indices reported by Dalzell and Sarofim (1969), Lee and Tien (1981), and Chang and Charalampopoulos (1990). The specific extinction coefficients and emissivities were predicted based on Rayleigh-Debye-Gans theory for polydisperse fractal aggregates, which has been recently found to be the best approximation to treat optical cross sections of soot aggregates. The results indicated that available refractive indices of soot do not predict the spectral trends of present measurements in the ultraviolet and infrared regions. Soot complex refractive index was inferred to be m = 1.54 + 0.48i at 0.514 mu m, which is surprisingly in best agreement with the values reported by Dalzell and Sarofim (1969). Additionally, specific extinction coefficients of soot aggregates varied with wavelength as lambda(-0.83) from the visible to the infrared. Finally soot refractive indices were found to be relatively independent of fuel type for the visible and infrared spectral regions over the H/C ratio range of 0.08-0.22.},
	keywords = {absorption, combustion systems, light scattering, particles, radiation, Refractive indexes},
	author = {{\"U}mit {\"O}zg{\"u}r K{\"o}yl{\"u} and Faeth, G. M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Assessment of soot volume fractions from laser-induced incandescence by comparison with extinction measurements in laminar, premixed, flat flames},
	journal = {Proceedings of the Combustion Institute},
	volume = {26},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {2387-2395},
	keywords = {LII, soot},
	author = {Appel, J. and Jungfleisch, B. and Marquardt, M. and Rainer Suntz and Henning Bockhorn}
}
@article {,
	title = {Calculation of the T matrix and the scattering matrix for ensembles of spheres},
	journal = {Journal of the optical society of America},
	volume = {A/13},
	number = {11},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {2266-2278},
	author = {D. W. Mackowski and M. I. Mishchenko}
}
@article {,
	title = {Comprehensive two-dimensional soot diagnostics based on laser-induced incandescence (LII)},
	journal = {Proc. Combust. Inst.},
	volume = {26},
	year = {1996},
	note = {Soot I},
	pages = {2277-2284},
	author = {Will, S. and Schraml, S. and Leipertz, A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {The elusive History of m = 1.57 - 0.56i for the Refractive Index of Soot},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {107},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {314-320},
	author = {Smyth, Kermit C. and Shaddix, Christopher R.}
}
@article {,
	title = {In situ ultrafine particle sizing by a combination of pulsed laser heatup and particle thermal emission},
	journal = {Journal of Aerosol Science},
	volume = {27},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {95-104},
	keywords = {laser heating, LII experiment, soot},
	author = {Roth, Paul and Filippov, A. V.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence: Detection issues},
	journal = {Appl. Opt.},
	volume = {35},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {6548-6559},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Range of validity of the Rayleigh-Debye-Gans theory for optics of fractal aggregates},
	journal = {Appl. Opt.},
	volume = {35},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {6560-6567},
	author = {Farias, T. L. and {\"U}mit {\"O}zg{\"u}r K{\"o}yl{\"u} and Carvalho, M. G.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot precursor material: Visualization via simultaneous LIF-LII and characterization via TEM},
	journal = {Proc. Combust. Inst.},
	volume = {27},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {2269-2275},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {T-matrix computations of light scattering by nonspherical particles: A review},
	journal = {Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy \& Radiative Transfer},
	volume = {55},
	number = {5},
	year = {1996},
	pages = {535-575},
	author = {M. I. Mishchenko and L. D. Travis and D. W. Mackowski}
}
@article {,
	title = {Fractal and projected structure properties of soot aggregates},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {100},
	year = {1995},
	note = {Using Smart Source Parsing
n 4 Mar p},
	pages = {621-633},
	abstract = {The structure of soot aggregates was investigated, emphasizing the fractal properties as well as the relationships between the properties of actual and projected soot images. This information was developed by considering numerically simulated soot aggregates based on cluster-cluster aggregation as well as measured soot aggregates based on thermophoretic sampling and analysis by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of soot for a variety of fuels (acetylene, propylene, ethylene, and propane) and both laminar and turbulent diffusion flame conditions. It was found that soot aggregate fractal properties are relatively independent of fuel type and flame condition, yielding a fractal dimension of 1.82 and a fractal prefactor of 8.5, with experimental uncertainties (95\% confidence) of 0.08 and 0.5, respectively. Relationships between the actual and projected structure properties of soot, e.g., between the number of primary particles and the projected area and between the radius of gyration of an aggregate and its projected image, also are relatively independent of fuel type and flame condition.},
	keywords = {Agglomeration, Computer simulation, Fractals, Hydrocarbons, Laminar flow, Optical properties, Structure composition, Transmission electron microscopy, Turbulent flow},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-2180(94)00147-K},
	author = {{\"U}mit {\"O}zg{\"u}r K{\"o}yl{\"u} and Faeth, G. M. and Farias, T. L. and Carvalho, M. G.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot-visualization strategies using laser techniques},
	journal = {Appl. Phys. B},
	volume = {60},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {51-59},
	author = {Per-Erik Bengtsson and M. Ald{\'e}n}
}
@article {,
	title = {Two-dimensional imaging of soot volume fraction by the use of laser-induced incandescence},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {34},
	number = {30},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {7083-7091},
	abstract = {A recently developed laser-induced incandescence technique is
used to make novel planar measurements of soot volume fraction within
turbulent  diffusion flames and droplet flames. The two-dimensional
imaging  technique is developed and assessed by systematic experiments
in a  coannular laminar diffusion flame, in which the soot
characteristics  have been well established. With a single point calibration
procedure, agreement to within 10\% was found between the values of soot
volume  fraction measured by this technique and those determined by conventional laser scattering-extinction methods in the flame. As a  demonstration of the wide range of applicability of the technique, soot  volume fraction images are also obtained from both turbulent ethene diffusion flames and from a freely falling droplet flame that burns the  mixture of 75\% benzene and 25\% methanol. For the turbulent
diffusion  flames, approximately an 80\% reduction in soot volume fraction was  found when the Reynolds number of the fuel jet increased from 4000 to 8000. In the droplet flame case, the distribution of soot field was  found to be similar to that observed in coannular laminar diffusion flames.},
	keywords = {calibration, droplet  flames, flames, flow visualisation, laser-induced   incandescence, measurement by laser beam, optical images, planar measurements, soot volume fraction, turbulent diffusion, turbulent diffusion ID- two-dimensional imaging, tw},
	url = {http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?\&id=45889},
	author = {Ni, T. and Pinson, J. A. and Gupta, S. and Santoro, R. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Comparisons of the soot volume fraction using gravimetric and light extinction techniques},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {102},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {161-169},
	author = {Choi, M. Y. and Mulholland, G. W. and Hamins, A. and Kashiwagi, T.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Computational evaluation of approximate Rayleigh-Debye-Gans/fractal- aggregate theory for the absorption and scattering properties of soot.},
	journal = {J. Heat Transfer},
	volume = {117},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {152-159},
	author = {Farias, T. L. and Carvalho, M. G. and {\"U}mit {\"O}zg{\"u}r K{\"o}yl{\"u} and Faeth, G. M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence applied to droplet combustion},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {34},
	number = {6},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {1103-1107},
	keywords = {LII, soot},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L. and Dietrich, D. L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Two-dimensional soot-particle sizing by time-resolved laser-induced incandescence},
	journal = {Optics Letters},
	volume = {20},
	year = {1995},
	pages = {2342-2344},
	keywords = {LII experiment, LII model, soot},
	author = {Will, S. and Schraml, S. and Leipertz, A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Comparison of a fractal smoke optics model with light extinction measurements},
	journal = {Atmos. Environ.},
	volume = {28},
	number = {5},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {889-97},
	abstract = {Optical cross-sections of carbonaceous aggregates (smoke) formed by combustion sources have been computed based on fractal concepts. Specific extinction depends upon the primary particle size, the structure of the aggregates as represented by the fractal dimension, the fractal prefactor, and the real and imaginary components of the refractive index of the particle material. While the fractal dimension and primary particle diam. are narrowly defined, the refractive index, to which the results are highly sensitive, are disputed. Specific extinction was measured at .lambda. = 450, 630, and 1000 nm in a smoke-filled chamber with an optical path length of 1.0 m that was equipped to continuously monitor both particle mass and no. concn. as the smoke aged during a 90-120 min interval. The smoke was generated by the burning of crude oil in a pool fire. Specific extinction at all three values of .lambda. was const. even though the aggregate no. concn. decreases by a factor of 24 owing to cluster-cluster aggregation. The refractive indexes at several wavelengths that are required to give agreement with the measured specific extinction are compared with literature values. The inadequacy of Mie theory for spheres in predicting the optical properties of soot aggregates is reiterated.},
	keywords = {59-2 (Air Pollution and Industrial Hygiene)},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/1352-2310(94)90247-X},
	author = {Dobbins, R. A. and Mulholland, G. W. and Bryner, N. P.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence: Development and characterization towards a measurement of soot-volume fraction},
	journal = {Applied Physics B},
	volume = {59},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {445-452},
	abstract = {Laser-Induced Incandescence (LII) occurs when a high-energy pulsed laser is used to heat soot to incandescent temperatures. Theoretical calculations predict and experimental tests demonstrate the resulting incandescence to be a measure of soot-volume fraction. Practical implementation of the technique is detailed by examining the spectral character, temporal behavior, and excitation-intensity dependence of the resulting thermal emission from the laser-heated soot in both premixed and diffusion flames. Spatial and temporal capabilities of LII are demonstrated by obtaining one- and two-dimensional images of soot-volume fraction via laser-induced incandescence in both types of flames.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01081067},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L. and Weiland, K. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Spatially resolved measurements of soot volume fraction using laser-induced incandescence},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {97},
	year = {1994},
	note = {Pennsylvania State Univ, University Park, PA, USA
Article
Jun . p 384-392. 14 Refs
DRS
First Santoro LII paper.  Shows that LII and extinction give very similar (within 10\%) soot profiles in conventional LDF from 10 to  70 mm height.  Decay time constant 600 ns in heavily sooting region. Claim this indicates approximately 100 nm particle size quoting Melton.  They also measure soot size from 90 degree scattering. Find d=60-110 nm as r=0-2.5 at 40 mm height.},
	pages = {384-392},
	abstract = {Laser-induced incandescence is used to obtain spatially resolved measurements of soot volume fraction in a laminar diffusion flame, excellent agreement. In addition, the laser-induced incandescence signal is observed to involve a rapid rise in intensity followed by a relatively long (ca. 600 ns) decay period subsequent to the laser pulse, while the effect of laser fluence is manifest in nonlinear and near-saturated response of the laser-induced incandescence signal. Laser-induced incandescence can be used as an instantaneous, spatially resolved diagnostic of soot volume fraction without the need for the conventional line-of-sight laser extinction method, while potential applications in two-dimensional imaging and simultaneous measurements of laser-induced incandescence and light-scattering to generate a complete soot property characterization are significant. (Edited author abstract).},
	keywords = {*Flame research, Diffusion, Laminar flow, Laser applications, light scattering},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0010-2180(94)90029-9},
	author = {Quay, B. and Lee, T.-W. and Ni, T. and Santoro, R. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {High-temperature behaviour of fullerene black},
	journal = {Carbon},
	volume = {32},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {1245-1248},
	author = {Ugarte, D.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Laser-induced incandescence: Development and characterization towards a measurement of soot volume fraction},
	journal = {Applied Physics B: Lasers and Optics},
	volume = {59},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {445-452},
	keywords = {laser heating, LII experiment, soot},
	author = {Vander Wal, Randy L. and Weiland, K. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Light scattering by agglomerates. Coupled electric and magnetic dipole method},
	journal = {Langmuir},
	volume = {10},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {2533-2546},
	author = {Mulholland, G. W. and Bohren, C. F. and Fuller, K. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Light scattering by porous dust particles in the discrete-dipole approximation},
	journal = {Astrophysical Journal},
	volume = {425},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {663-667},
	author = {K. Lumme and J. Rahola}
}
@article {,
	title = {Time-delayed detection of laser-induced incandes-cence for the two-dimensional visualization of soot in flames},
	journal = {Appl. Opt.},
	volume = {33},
	year = {1994},
	pages = {5778-5782},
	author = {F. Cignoli and S. Benecchi and G. Zizak}
}
@article {,
	title = {PLIF Imaging of Fuel Fraction in Practical Devices and LII Imaging of Soot},
	journal = {Berichte der Bunsengesellschaft fuer Physikalische Chemie},
	volume = {97},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {1619-1625},
	abstract = {The authors discuss the development and application of 2D imaging methods for the study of fuel-air mixing and the in-situ measurement of soot in flames. Fuel imaging is based on planar laser-induced fluorescence (PLIF) with pulsed UV lasers. Fuel concns. may be estimated from the fluorescence of common fuel components or through the addition of a fluorescent species or seed. PLIF of fuel is shown to be applicable to both premixed and non-premixed combustion. The choice of fluorescent seed and the role of interfering species, such as combustion derived polyarom. hydrocarbons (PAH) and laser-induced incandescence from soot, are discussed. The application of the method is illustrated with an example of an isothermal mixing study in a gas turbine combustor sector rig and measurements in a simple flame. The results demonstrate that PLIF can achieve high spatial resolution, ~0.4 mm, in a combustor with dimensions of order of 400 mm. The dynamic range of the measured intensities exceeds 1500 with typical signal-to-noise ratios of better than 100:1. A major source of interference in PLIF studies of non-premixed flames is laser-induced incandescence (LII) from soot particles. The authors discuss the role of LII both as an interference in PLIF imaging and as an imaging method for soot volume fraction. A detailed anal. of the physics of LII is presented on a theor. model developed. Results from the model and supporting exptl. data are presented. LII images from a highly turbulent sooting flame indicate that soot structures, probably in the form of thin sheets as small as 100 mm across, are formed through vortex mixing.},
	url = {http://chemport.cas.org/cgi-bin/sdcgi?APP=ftslink\&action=reflink\&origin=aip\&version=1.0\&coi=1:CAS:528:DyaK2cXhtlynsL8\%3D},
	author = {Tait, N. P. and Greenhalgh, D. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Raman spectroscopy of closed-shell carbon particles},
	journal = {Chem. Phys. Lett.},
	volume = {211},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {346-352},
	abstract = {Raman spectra of annealed carbon soot reveal strong structural changes. Downshifts of the graphite-like phonon bands to lower energies after annealing are suggested to be related to strained or curved graphitic planes. The effect of curvature on the energy of the in-plane optical phonon mode is quantitatively estimated by applying the semi-empirical interatomic Tersoff potential. A weighted average curvature corresponding to a bond bending of 2.1[o] is deduced for spherical shells with 20.6 {\r A} radius. These findings are consistent with high-resolution electron microscopy images which reveal closed-shell carbon particles in the same size range},
	isbn = {0009-2614},
	author = {Bacsa, W. S. and de Heer, W. A. and Ugarte, D. and Ch{\^a}telain , A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Real-Time Soot Concentration Measurement Technique for Engine Exhaust Streams},
	year = {1993},
	institution = {SAE},
	isbn = {930079},
	author = {Hofeldt, David L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Refractive indices of pyrolytic graphite, amorphous carbon, and flame soot in the temperature range 25 degree to 600 degree C},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {94},
	number = {4},
	year = {1993},
	note = {Louisiana State Univ, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
Article
Sep .   37 Refs},
	pages = {381-396},
	abstract = {A technique was developed that allows the determination of the temperature dependence of the refractive indices of carbonaceous materials from ellipsometric intensity measurements on bulk samples. The refractive indices of the carbonaceous samples pyrolytic graphite, amorphous carbon and flame soot were determined over the temperature range 25-600 degree C and the spectral region 400-700 nm. For all three samples it was found that the inferred refractive index shows insignificant variation with temperature for this range of temperature and wavelength. These results differ by 30 percent or more from the predictions of the Drude Lorentz dispersion model which has been used extensively to predict the variation of the optical properties of carbonaceous particulates. A new set of dispersion constants is presented that accurately predict the indices in the temperature range 25-600 degree C and in the wavelength range 400-700 nm. (Author abstract).},
	keywords = {*Flame research, Amorphous materials, Carbon, Ellipsometry, Graphite, Refractive index, soot, Thermal effects},
	author = {Stagg, Barry J. and Charalampopoulos, T. T.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Aerosol dynamic processes of soot aggregates in a laminar ethane diffusion flame},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {92},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {320},
	author = {Puri, R. and Richardson, T. F. and Santoro, R. J. and Dobbins, R. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Carbon onions produced by heat treatment of carbon soot and their relation to the 217.5 nm interstellar absorption feature},
	journal = {Chem. Phys. Lett.},
	volume = {207},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {480-486},
	author = {de Heer, W. A. and Ugarte, D.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Diesel engine combustion studies in a newly designed optical-access engine using high speed visualization and 2-D laser imaging},
	journal = {SAE Technical Paper Series 930971},
	year = {1993},
	keywords = {engine, LII, soot},
	author = {Espey, C. and Dec, J. E.}
}
@article {,
	title = {PLIF imaging of fuel fraction in practical devices and LII imaging of soot},
	journal = {Berichte der Bunsengesellschaft f{\~A}{\textonequarter}r Physikalische Chemie},
	volume = {97},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {1619-1625},
	keywords = {laser heating, LII experiment, soot},
	author = {Tait, N. P. and Greenhalgh, D. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Quantitative, planar soot measurements in a D. I. diesel engine using laser-induced incandescence and light scattering},
	journal = {SAE Technical Paper Series 932650},
	year = {1993},
	keywords = {engine, imaging, laser heating, light scattering, LII experiment, soot},
	author = {Pinson, J. A. and Mitchell, D. L. and Santoro, R. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Real-time soot concentration measurement technique for engine exhaust streams},
	journal = {SAE Technical Paper Series 930079},
	year = {1993},
	keywords = {engine exhaust, LII experiment, soot},
	author = {Hofeldt, David L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Refractive indices of pyrolytic graphite, amorphous carbon, and flame soot in the temperature range 25{\^A}{\textdegree} to 600{\^A}{\textdegree}C},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {94},
	year = {1993},
	pages = {381-396},
	author = {Stagg, Barry J. and Charalampopoulos, T. T.}
}
@article {,
	title = {One-dimensional tomography: a comparison of Abel, onion-peeling, and filtered backprojection methods.},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {31},
	number = {8},
	year = {1992},
	pages = {1146-52},
	abstract = {It is shown that the Abel inversion, onion-peeling, and filtered backprojection methods can be
intercompared without assumptions about the object being deconvolved. If the projection data are taken
at equally spaced radial positions, the deconvolved field is given by weighted sums of the projections
divided by the data spacing. The weighting factors are independent of the data spacing. All the methods
are remarkably similar and have Abelian behavior: the field at a radial location is primarily determined by
the weighted differences of a few projections around the radial position. Onion-peeling and an Abel
inversion using two-point interpolation are similar. When the Shepp-Logan filtered backprojection
method is reduced to one dimension, it is essentially identical to an Abel inversion using three-point
interpolation. The weighting factors directly determine the relative noise performance: the three-point
Abel inversion is the best, while onion peeling is the worst with approximately twice the noise. Based on
ease of calculation, robustness, and noise, the three-point Abel inversion is recommended.},
	url = {http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-31-8-1146},
	author = {Dasch, Cameron J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot distribution in a D. I. diesel engine using 2-D imaging of laser-induced incandescence, elastic scattering, and flame luminosity},
	journal = {SAE Technical Paper Series 920115},
	year = {1992},
	author = {Dec, J. E.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Trans-spectral absorption and scattering of electromagnetic radiation by diesel soot},
	journal = {Appl. Opt.},
	volume = {30},
	number = {12},
	year = {1991},
	note = {White Sands Missile Range, U.S. Army Atmos. Sci. Lab., Las Cruces,
Article},
	pages = {1537-46},
	abstract = {The mass density normalized absorption and total scattering coefficients have been measured using in situ
techniques at selected wavelengths from the visible to ~1 cm for soot generated by the open combustion of
diesel fuel. Particle morphologies are complex although similar to those of soots of other hydrocarbons and
methods of generation. An ellipsoidal model has been applied as an approximation to the often multiconnected,
chainlike aerosol and then compared with the measured results. The experimental results show an
approximate (lambda)-1 dependence over more than five decades of wavelength data. There is only general
agreement with the simplified calculations in this feature as well as in the magnitude.},
	keywords = {Air pollution :(by diesel soot, trans-spectral absorption and scattering coeffs. of) Optical absorption :(of diesel soot, particle morphol. in relation to, modeling of) Particles :(morphol. of, of diesel soot, light absorption and scattering in relation t},
	url = {http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-30-12-1537},
	author = {Bruce, Charles W. and Stromberg, Thor F. and Gurton, Kristan P. and Mozer, J. B.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot distribution in a D. I. diesel engine using 2-D laser-induced incandescence imaging},
	journal = {SAE Technical Paper Series 910224},
	year = {1991},
	keywords = {engine, imaging, LII experiment, soot},
	author = {Dec, J. E. and zur Loye, A. O. and Siebers, D. L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {In situ evaluation of the soot refractive index in the UV-visible from the measurement of the scattering and extinction coefficients in rich flames},
	journal = {Combustion and Flame},
	volume = {79},
	year = {1990},
	note = {Univ di Napoli P.le Techio, Naples, Italy
Article
Mar  p 259-271. 31 Refs},
	pages = {3-4},
	abstract = {This article proposes a new method for the evaluation of the dispersion of the optical properties of absorbing submicronic aerosols, starting from the simultaneous measurements of the scattering and extinction coefficients in the near UV and visible. The experiments were on premixed flat flames at atmospheric pressure with such nonaromatic fuels as CH4, C2H4, and C2H2 and different C-O ratios and flow rates. A quantitative determination of the special behavior of the real and imaginary parts of the complex refractive index of soot was obtained in conditions where the molecular contribution could be neglected and where the particles were not agglomerated and behaved as Rayleigh scatterers. (Edited author abstract).},
	keywords = {*SOOT - Optical Properties, AEROSOLS - Optical Properties, FLAME RESEARCH, FUELS - Combustion, GRAPHITE - Optical Properties},
	author = {Vaglieco, B. M. and Beretta, F. and D{\textquoteright}Alessio, A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Determination of the wavelength dependence of refractive indices of flame soot},
	journal = {Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A: Mathematical and Physical Sciences},
	volume = {430},
	year = {1990},
	pages = {577-591},
	keywords = {index of refraction, light scattering, soot},
	author = {Chang, H. and Charalampopoulos, T. T.}
}
@article {,
	title = {High temperature oxidation of suspended soot particles verified by CO and CO},
	journal = {Proc. Combust. Inst.},
	volume = {23},
	year = {1990},
	pages = {1485-1491},
	keywords = {oxidation, soot},
	author = {Roth, Paul and Brandt, O. and von Gersum, S.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Optical emission studies of atomic, molecular, and particulate carbon produced from a laser vaporization cluster source},
	journal = {J. Chem. Phys.},
	volume = {89},
	year = {1988},
	pages = {6103-6112},
	author = {Rohlfing, E. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Morphology of Flame-Generated Soot as Determined by Thermophoretic Sampling},
	journal = {Langmuir},
	volume = {3},
	year = {1987},
	pages = {254-259},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/la00074a019},
	author = {Dobbins, R. A. and Megaridis, C. M.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot particle formation in laminar diffusion flames},
	journal = {Langmuir},
	volume = {3},
	year = {1987},
	pages = {244-254},
	author = {Santoro, R. J. and Miller, J. H.}
}
@book {,
	title = {Introduction to Solid State Physics},
	year = {1986},
	pages = {515-521},
	publisher = {John Wiley \& Sons, Inc.},
	organization = {John Wiley \& Sons, Inc.},
	edition = {6th},
	address = {New York},
	keywords = {defects, interstitials, vacancies},
	isbn = {0-471-87474-4},
	author = {Kittel, C.}
}
@article {,
	title = {New Soot Diagnostics in Flames Based on Laser Vaporization of Soot},
	journal = {Proceedings of the Twentieth Symposium (International) on Combustion},
	year = {1984},
	pages = {1231-1237},
	author = {Dasch, C. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot Diagnostics Based on Laser Heating},
	journal = {Applied Optics},
	volume = {23},
	number = {13},
	year = {1984},
	pages = {2201-2208},
	abstract = {Through numerical calculations we have investigated the possibility of developing soot diagnostics based
on laser heating of the soot particles. Two strategies, one using the laser-modulated incandescence of the
particles, and the other using direct detection of the evaporated C2 molecules, were examined. Both strategies
can yield size distribution and volume fraction information provided the laser wavelength is near the
graphite absorption band at 260 nm; otherwise, only volume fractions can be obtained.},
	keywords = {laser heating, LII model, soot},
	url = {http://www.opticsinfobase.org/abstract.cfm?URI=ao-23-13-2201},
	author = {Melton, Lynn A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Continuous-wave probe laser investigation of laser vaporization of small
soot particles in a flame},
	journal = {Appl.  Opt.},
	volume = {23},
	year = {1984},
	pages = {2209-2215},
	author = {Dasch, C. J.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Soot particle measurements in diffusion flames},
	journal = {Combust. Flame},
	volume = {51},
	year = {1983},
	pages = {203-218},
	author = {Santoro, R. J. and Semerjian, H. G. and Dobbins, R. A.}
}
@book {,
	title = {Morphology and internal structure of soot and carbon blacks in particulate carbon: Formation during combustion},
	year = {1981},
	pages = {33-35},
	publisher = {Plenum},
	organization = {Plenum},
	address = {New York},
	author = {Lahaye, J. and Prado, G.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Optical constants of soot in hydrocarbon flames},
	journal = {Proceedings of the Combustion Institute},
	volume = {18},
	year = {1981},
	pages = {1159-1166},
	keywords = {index of refraction, Optical properties, soot},
	author = {Lee, S. C. and Tien, C. L.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Effects of Laser-Modulated Particulate Incandescence on Raman Scattering Diagnostics},
	journal = {Journal of Applied Physics},
	volume = {48},
	year = {1977},
	pages = {4473-4479},
	abstract = {Laser-modulated particulate (soot) incandescence has been studied by measuring the laser-driven particle surface temperature in a propane diffusion flame as a function of laser focal flux. The experimental results display fair agreement with an analytical model of the process. Quite importantly, the absolute incandescence level displays a saturation behavior with increasing laser pulse energy. For laser Raman scattering diagnostics, this behavior means that the S/N ratio will increase with increasing laser flux level. Thus, for highest S/N ratio, it is preferable to operate at the highest possible flux short of gas breakdown and/or optical-component damage levels.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.323458},
	author = {Eckbreth, A. C.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Transport Phenomena in the Rarefied Gas Transition Regime},
	journal = {Chemical Engineering Science},
	volume = {29},
	year = {1974},
	pages = {381-388},
	abstract = {For rarefied gases the collision frequency of the Krook kinetic equation is expressed as the sum of wall and gas collision frequencies. Effective transport coefficients arise from the Chapman{\^a}{\texteuro}{\textquotedblright}Enskog theory, and are similar to those proposed by other methods. The transport of either energy, momentum, or mass is analysed for several geometries. Profiles of temperature, velocity, and concentration, which involve jump and slip at the wall, are derived, and accommodation effects are included. The expressions have the proper limits for the continuum and free-molecule regimes, and compare well with other theories and experimental data for transition regime. Heat conduction formulas apply to polyatomic gases. Plane, concentric cylinder, and spherical geometries are considered.},
	url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0009-2509(74)80047-3},
	author = {McCoy, B. J. and Cha, C. Y.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Transport phenomena in the rarefied gas transport regime},
	journal = {Chemical Engineering Science},
	volume = {29},
	year = {1974},
	pages = {381-388},
	keywords = {heat transfer, mass transfer},
	author = {McCoy, B. J. and Cha, C. Y.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Aerosol-particle sizes from light emission during excitation by TEA CO},
	journal = {J.  Appl.  Phys},
	volume = {45},
	number = {10},
	year = {1973},
	pages = {4661-4662},
	author = {R. W. Weeks and W. W. Duley}
}
@article {,
	title = {Thermodynamic properties of carbon up to the critical point},
	journal = {Carbon},
	volume = {11},
	year = {1973},
	pages = {555-563},
	keywords = {Carbon, sublimation},
	author = {Leider, H. R. and Krikorian, O. H. and Young, D. A.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Optical constants of soot and their application to heat flux calculations},
	journal = {Journal of Heat Transfer},
	volume = {91},
	year = {1969},
	pages = {100-104},
	abstract = {Optical Constants of Soot and Their Application to Heat Flux Calculations  Data on the roorn temperature optical constants of soot are present.ed for the wavelength regions 0.4-0.8 micro m and 2. 7 -10.0 micro m Dispersion formlas are developed for interpolating the data between 0.8 and 2.5 micro m. The results are used to calculate the spectral absorption coefficient and the locall emissivties of soot suspensions.  It is shown that the correct values of the optical constants are neeeded in thc use of light-scatterirrg techniques for the measurement of  the soot concentration but that uncertainties introduced in flux calculations by use of approximate values of the optical constants are not greater than those inlroduced hy the present uncertainties in the valucs of the soot concentration},
	author = {Dalzell, W. H. and Sarofim, A. F.}
}
@article {,
	title = {Optical constants of soot and their application to heat-flux calculations},
	journal = {Journal of Heat Transfer, Transactions of the ASME},
	volume = {91},
	year = {1969},
	pages = {100-104},
	keywords = {index of refraction, Optical properties, soot},
	author = {Dalzell, W. H. and Sarofim, A. F.}
}
